Re: YOU MUST KNOW THIS MAN
- From: mynewguru@xxxxxxxxx
- Date: Tue, 04 Sep 2007 14:39:52 -0700
Hey Pasha...A Muslim Jesus? I Don't Think So!
The Muslim Jesus, Known as 'Issa':
by Dr Mark Durie
"The word Christian is not a valid word, for there is no religion of
Christianity according to Islam".
Today we increasingly hear and read that Christianity and Islam
'share' Jesus, that he belongs to both religions. So also with
Abraham: there is talk of the West's 'Abrahamic civilization' where
once people spoke of 'Judeo-Christian civilization'. This shift of
thinking reflects the growing influence of
Islam.
These notes offer some information and reflections on the 'Muslim
Jesus', to help put this trend in its proper context.
References in brackets are to the Qur'an. Numbering systems for the
Qur'anic verses are not standardized, and may therefore vary between
editions and parts of the world: be prepared to search through nearby
verses for the same one I present in the numbers here. We will examine
the main Muslims claims first, and then explore their historic
validity and truthfulness;
______________________________________________________________
Islam is the primordial faith;
Islam regards itself, not as a subsequent faith to Judaism and
Christianity, but as the primordial religion, the faith from which
Judaism and Christianity are subsequent developments. In the Qur'an we
read that Abraham 'was not a Jew nor a Christian, but he was a
monotheist, a Muslim' (Âl 'Imran 3:66). So it is
Muslims, and not Christians or Jews, who are the true representatives
of the faith of Abraham to the world today. (Al-Baqarah 2:135)
The Biblical prophets were all Muslims;
Many prophets of the past received the one religion of Islam. (Ash-
Shura 42:13) Who were these previous prophets? According to Al-An'am
6:85-87 they
include Ibrahim (Abraham), 'Ishaq (Issac), Yaqub (Jacob), Nuh (Noah),
Dawud (David), Sulaiman (Solomon), Ayyub (Job), Yusuf (Joseph), Musa
(Moses), Harun (Aaron), Zakariyya (Zachariah), Yahya (John the
Baptist), 'Isa (Jesus), Ilyas, Ishmael, Al-Yash'a (Elisha), Yunus
(Jonah) and Lut (Lot).
The Muslim 'Isa (Jesus);
There are two main sources for 'Isa, the Muslim Jesus. The Qur'an
gives a history of his life, whilst the Hadith collections -
recollections of Muhammad's words and deeds - establish his place in
the Muslim understanding of the future. The Qur'an' Isa, was a prophet
of Islam. Jesus' true name, according to the Qur'an, was 'Isa. His
message was pure Islam, surrender to Allah. (Âl 'Imran 3:84) Like all
the Muslim prophets before him, and like Muhammad after him, 'Isa was
a lawgiver, and
Christians should submit to his law. (Âl 'Imran 3:50; Al-Ma'idah
5:48) 'Isa's original disciples were also true Muslims, for they said
'We believe. Bear witness that we have surrendered. We are
Muslims.' (Al-Ma'idah 5:111)
'The Books'
Like all the prophets of Islam before him, 'Isa received his
revelation of Islam in the form of a book. (Al-An'am 6:90) 'Isa's book
is called the Injil or 'gospel'. (Al-Ma'idah 5:46) The Torah was
Moses' book, and the Zabur (Psalms) were David's book. So Jews and
Christians are 'people of the Book'. The one religion revealed in
these books was Islam. (Âl 'Imran 3:18) As with previous prophets,
'Isa's revelation verified previous prophets' revelations. (Âl 'Imran
3:49,84; Al-Ma'idah 5:46; As-Saff 61:6) Muhammad himself verified all
previous revelations, including the
revelation to 'Isa (An-Nisa'
4:47), and so Muslims must believe in the revelation which 'Isa
received. (Al-Baqarah 2:136) However, after 'Isa the Injil was lost in
its original form. Today the Qur'an is the only sure guide to 'Isa's
teaching.
The Biography of 'Isa
According to the Qur'an, 'Isa was the Messiah. He was supported by the
'Holy Spirit'. (Al-Baqarah 2:87; Al-Ma'idah 5:110) He is also referred
to as the 'Word of Allah'. (An-Nisa' 4:171)
'Isa's mother Mariam was the
daughter of 'Imran, (Âl 'Imran 3:34,35) - cf the Amram of Exodus 6:20
- and the sister of Aaron (and Moses). (Maryam 19:28) She was fostered
by Zachariah (father of John the Baptist). (Âl 'Imran 3:36) While
still a virgin (Al-An'am 6:12; Maryam 19:19-21) Mariam gave birth to
'Isa alone in a desolate place under a date palm tree. (Maryam
19:22ff) (Not in Bethlehem ).
'Isa spoke whilst still a baby in his cradle. (Âl 'Imran 3:46; Al-
Ma'idah 5:110; Maryam 19:30) He performed various other miracles,
including breathing life into clay birds, healing the blind and
lepers, and raising the dead. (Âl 'Imran 3:49; Al-Ma'idah 5:111) He
also foretold the coming of Muhammad. (As-Saff 61:6)
'Isa Did Not Die on a Cross
Christians and Jews have corrupted their scriptures. (Âl 'Imran
3:74-77, 113) Although Christians believe 'Isa died on a cross, and
Jews claim they killed him, in reality he was not killed or crucified,
and those who said he was crucified lied (An-Nisa' 4:157). 'Isa did
not die, but ascended to Allah (he did not go to Kashmir to die there
either). (An-Nisa' 4:158) On the day of Resurrection 'Isa himself will
be a witness against Jews and Christians for believing in his death.
(An-Nisa' 4:159)
Christians Should Accept Islam; all true Christians (and Jews) could
not be freed from their ignorance until
Muhammad came bringing the Qur'an as clear evidence (Al-Bayyinah
98:1). Muhammad was
Allah's gift to Christians to correct misunderstandings. They should
accept Muhammad as Allah's Messenger, and the Qur'an as his final
revelation. (Al-Ma'idah 5:15; Al-Hadid 57:28; An-Nisa' 4:47)
Some Christians and Jews are faithful and believe truly. (Âl 'Imran
3:113,114) Any such true believers will submit to Allah by accepting
Muhammad as the prophet of Islam, i.e. they will become Muslims. (Âl
'Imran 3:198) Although Jews and pagans will have the greatest enmity
against Muslims, it is the Christians who will be 'nearest in love to
the believers', i.e. to Muslims. (Al-Ma'idah 5:82) True Christians
will not love Muhammad's enemies. (Al-Mujadilah 58:22) In other words,
anyone who opposes Muhammad is not a true
Christian.
Christians who accept Islam or refuse it; Some Jews and Christians are
true believers, accepting Islam: most are transgressors. (Âl 'Imran
3:109) Many monks and rabbis are greedy for wealth and prevent people
from coming to Allah. (At-Taubah 9:34,35) Christians and Jews who
disbelieve in Muhammad will go to hell. (Al-Bayyinah
98:6) Muslims should not take Christians or Jews for friends. (Al-
Ma'idah 5:51) They must fight against Christians and Jews who refuse
Islam until they surrender, pay the poll-tax and are humiliated. (At-
Taubah 9:29) To this may be added hundreds of Qur'anic verses on the
subject of jihad in the path of Allah, as well as the 'Book of Jihad'
found in all Hadith
collections.
Christian Beliefs;
Christians are commanded not to believe that 'Isa is the son of God:
'It is far removed from his transcendent majesty that he should have a
son'. (An-Nisa' 4:171; Al-Furqan 25:2) 'Isa was simply a created human
being, and a slave of Allah. (An-Nisa' 4:172; Âl 'Imran 3:59)
Christians are claimed by the Qur'an to believe in a family of gods -
Father God, mother Mary and 'Isa the son - but 'Isa rejected this
teaching. (Al-Ma'idah 5:116) The doctrine of the Trinity is disbelief
and a painful doom awaits those who believe it. (Al-Ma'idah 5:73)
'Isa (Jesus) in the Hadith;
'Isa the Destroyer of Christianity
The prophet 'Isa will have an important role in the end times,
establishing Islam and making war until he destroys all religions save
Islam. He shall kill the Evil One (Dajjal), an apocalyptic anti-Christ
figure. In one tradition of Muhammad we read that no further prophets
will come to earth until 'Isa returns as 'a man of medium height, or
reddish complexion, wearing two light garments, looking as if drops
were falling down from his head although it will not be wet. He will
fight for the cause of Islam. He will break the cross, kill pigs, and
abolish the poll-tax. Allah will destroy all religions
except Islam. He ('Isa) will destroy the Evil
One and will live on the earth for forty years and then he will die'.
(Sunan Abu Dawud, 37:4310) The Sahih Muslim has a variant of this
tradition: 'The son of Mary ... will soon descend among you as a just
judge. He will ... abolish the poll-tax, and the wealth will pour
forth to such an extent that no one will accept charitable
gifts.' (Sahih Muslim
287)
What do these sayings mean?
The cross is a symbol of Christianity. Breaking crosses means
abolishing Christianity. Pigs are associated with Christians.
Killing them is another way of speaking of the destruction of
Christianity. Under
Islamic law the poll-tax buys the protection of the lives and
property of conquered 'people of the Book'. (At-Taubah 9:29) The
abolition of the poll-tax means jihad is restarted against Christians
(and Jews) living under Islam, who should convert to Islam, or else be
killed or enslaved. The abundance of wealth
refers to booty flowing to the Muslims from this conquest. This is
what the Muslim 'Isa will do when he returns in the last days.
Critical Comments on the Muslim 'Isa (Jesus)
'Isa not an historical figure, The Qur'an's 'Isa is not an historical
figure. His identity and role as a prophet of Islam is based solely on
supposed revelations to
Muhammad over half a millennium after the Jesus of history lived and
died.
Jesus' name was never 'Isa
Jesus' mother tongue was Aramaic. In his own lifetime he was called
Yeshua in Aramaic, and Jesu in Greek. This is like calling the same
person John when speaking English and Jean when speaking French: Jesu,
pronounced "Yesoo", is the Greek form of Aramaic Yeshua. (The final -s
in Jesu-s is a Greek grammatical ending.) Yeshua is itself a form of
Hebrew Yehoshua', which means 'the Lord is salvation'. However
Yehoshua' is normally given in English as Joshua. So Joshua
and Jesus are variants of the same name. It is interesting that Jesus'
name Yehoshua' contains within it the proper Hebrew name for God, the
first syllable Yeh- being short for
YHWH 'the LORD'. Yeshua of Nazareth was never called 'Isa, the name
the Qur'an gives to him.
Arab-speaking Christians refer to Jesus as Yasou' (from Yeshua) not
'Isa.
Jesus did NOT receive a 'book';
According to the Qur'an, the 'book' revealed to 'Isa was the Injil.
The word Injil is a corrupted form of the Greek euanggelion 'good
news' or gospel. What was this euanggelion? This was just how Jesus
referred to his message: as good news. The expression euanggelion did
not refer to a fixed revealed text, and there is absolutely no
evidence that Jesus received a 'book' of revelation from
God. The 'gospels' of the Bible are biographies. The term
euanggelion later came to be used as a title for the four
biographies
of Jesus written by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, the 'gospels'. This
was a secondary development of meaning. Apparently this is where
Muhammad got his mistaken idea of the Injil being a 'book'.
Most so-called prophets of Islam received no book. Virtually all of
the so-called 'prophets' of Islam, whose names are taken from
the Hebrew scriptures, received no 'book' or law code. For example,
the Psalms are not a book revealing Islam, as the Qur'an claims, but a
collection of songs of worship, only some of which are David's. There
is not a shred of evidence in the Biblical history of David that he
received a book of laws for the Israelites. They already had the Torah
of Moses
to follow. So David was not a prophet in the Qur'an's sense of this
word. Likewise most of the prophets
claimed by Islam were neither lawgivers nor rulers.
Biblical prophecy and Islamic prophecy are not the same thing;
The Biblical understanding of prophecy is quite different from
Muhammad's. A Biblical prophecy is not regarded as a passage from a
heavenly eternally pre-existent text like the Qur'an, but a message
from God for a specific time and place. A biblical prophet is someone
to whom God reveals hidden things, and who then acts as God's verbal
agent. When a Samaritan woman called Jesus a prophet (John 4:19) it
was because he had spoken about things in her life that he could only
have known supernaturally.
Christianity teaches that Jesus was a
prophet, but he brought no 'book': he himself was the living 'Word of
God', a title used of 'Isa in the Qur'an.
By no means all prophecies referred to in the Bible became part of the
Biblical text. The Bible consists of a wide variety of materials
originally written for many different purposes, including letters,
songs, love poetry, historical narratives, legal texts, proverbial
wisdom as well as prophetic passages. These are regarded as inspired
by God, but not dictated from a timeless heavenly book.
As prophetic history, the Qur'an contains many errors and
anachronisms. Some of these
follow;
*Mariam the mother of 'Isa is called a sister of Aaron, and also the
daughter of Aaron's father 'Imran (Hebr. Amram). Clearly Muhammad has
confused Mary (Hebr. Miriam) with Miriam of the Exodus. The two lived
more than a thousand years apart!
*In the Bible Haman is the minister of Ahasuerus in Media and Persia
(The Book of Esther 3:1-2). Yet the Qur'an places him over a thousand
years earlier, as a minister of Pharaoh in Egypt .
*The claim that Christians believe in three Gods - Father, son Jesus
and mother Mary - is mistaken. The Qur'an is also
mistaken to claim that Jews say Ezra was a son of God. (At-Taubah
9:30)
*The charge of polytheism against Christianity and Judaism is ill-
informed and false. (Deuteronomy 6:4, James 2:19a)
*The story of the 'two horned one' (Al-Kahf 18:82 cf also Daniel 8:3,
20-21) is derived from the Romance of Alexander. Certainly Alexander
the Great was no Muslim.
*The problem with the name 'Isa has already been discussed. Other
Biblical names are also misunderstood in the Qur'an, and their
meanings lost. For example Elisha, which means 'God is salvation', is
given in the Qur'an as al-Yash'a, turning El 'God' into al- 'the'.
(Islamic tradition did the same to Alexander the Great, calling him al-
Iskandar 'the Iskander'). Abraham 'Father of many' (cf
Genesis 17:5) would be more accurately represented as Aburahim instead
of Ibrahim since Abu means 'father'.
*The Qur'an has a Samaritan making the golden calf, which was
worshipped by the Israelites in the wilderness (Ta Ha 20:85) during
the Exodus. In fact it was Aaron (Exodus 34:1-6). The Samaritans did
not exist until several centuries later. They were descendants of the
northern Israelites centuries after the Exodus.
*Many Qur'anic stories can be traced to Jewish and Christian folktales
and other apocryphal literature. For example a story of Abraham
destroying idols (As-Saffat 37) is found in a Jewish folktale, the
Midrash Rabbah. The Qur'anic story of Zachariah, father of John the
Baptist, is based upon a second-century Christian fable.
The story of Jesus being born under a palm tree is also based
on a late fable.
*Everything the Qur'an says about the life of Jesus, which is not
found in the Bible, can be traced to fables composed more than a
hundred years after Jesus' death.
Jesus' titles of Messiah and Word of God, which the Qur'an uses, find
no explanation in the Qur'an. Yet in the Bible, from which they are
taken, these titles are well integrated in a whole theological system.
The Qur'an mentions the Holy Spirit in connection with Jesus, using
phrases that come from the gospels. Ibn Ishaq (Life of Muhammad)
reports Muhammad as saying that this 'Spirit' was the angel Gabriel
(cf also An-Nahl 16:102, Al-Baqarah 2:97). However the Biblical phrase
'Spirit of God' (Ruach
Elohim) or 'Holy Spirit' can only be understood in light of the
Hebrew Scriptures. It certainly does not refer to an angel.
*Jesus' alleged foretelling of Muhammad's coming (As-Saff 61:6)
appears to be based on a garbled reading of John 14:26, a passage
which in fact refers to the Spirit.The Hebrew scriptures were Jesus'
Bible. He affirmed their authority and reliability and preached from
them. From these same scriptures he knew God as Adonai Elohim, the
Lord God of Israel . He did not call God Allah, which appears
to have been the name or title of a pagan Arabian deity worshipped in
Mecca before Muhammad. Muhammad's pagan father, who died before
Muhammad was born, already
bore the name 'Abd Allah 'slave of Allah', and his uncle was called
Obeid Allah.
*We read that An-Najm 53:19-23 seeks to refute the pagan Arab belief
that Allah had daughters named al-Uzza, al-Ilat and Manat. (See also
An-Nahl 16:57 and Al-An'am 6:100).
*The Biblical narratives are rich with historical details, many
confirmed by archaeology. They cover more than a thousand years, and
reveal a long process of technological and cultural development. In
contrast the Qur'an's sacred history is devoid of archaeological
support. Its fragmentary and disjointed stories offer no authentic
reflection of historical cultures. No place name from ancient
Israel is mentioned, not even Jerusalem . Many of the supposed
historical events reported in the Qur'an have no independent
verification. For example we are told that Abraham and Ishmael built
the Kaaba in Mecca (Al-Baqarah 2:127), but this is totally without
support. The Biblical account, more than a thousand years older, does
not place Abraham anywhere near Arabia .
*The Qur'an is not a credible source for Biblical history.
The Qur'an, written in the 7th century CE, cannot be regarded as
having any authority whatsoever to inform us about Jesus of Nazareth.
It offers no evidence for its claims about biblical history. Its
numerous
historical errors reflect a garbled understanding of the Bible.
*Islam appropriates the history of Judaism and Christianity to itself
When Muhammad linked the name of Allah to the religious histories of
Judaism and Christianity, this was a way to claim them for Islam. In
the light of later events, the claim that Islam was the original
religion, and that all preceding prophets were Muslims, can be
regarded as an attempt to appropriate the histories of other religions
for Islam. The effect is to rob Christianity and Judaism of their own
histories!
Consider that Islam claims many Biblical sites, such as the tombs of
the Hebrew Patriarchs and the Temple
Mount , as Muslim sites, not Jewish or Christian ones. After all, the
Qur'an tells us that Abraham 'was a Muslim'. Under Islamic rule all
Jews and Christians were banned from such sites.
*The place of the Jewish scriptures in Christianity is completely
different from the place of the Bible in Islam.
There is a fundamental difference between Christian attitudes to the
Jewish scriptures and Islamic attitudes to the Bible. Christians
accept the Hebrew Scriptures. They were the scriptures of Jesus and
the apostles. They were the scriptures of the early church. The whole
of Christian belief and practice rests upon them. Core Christian
concepts such as 'Messiah' (Greek 'Christos'), 'Spirit
of
God', ' Kingdom of God ' and 'salvation' are deeply rooted in the
Hebrew Biblical traditions.
We note also that Christian seminaries devote considerable effort to
studying the Hebrew Scriptures. This is an integral part of training
for Christian ministry. The Hebrew Scriptures are read (in
translation) every Sunday in many churches all around the world.
In contrast Islam's treatment of the Bible is one of complete
disregard. Although it purports to 'verify' all earlier prophetic
revelation, the Qur'an is oblivious to the real contents of the Bible.
The claim that Christians and Jews deliberately corrupted their
scriptures is made without evidence, and this only
serves to cover up the Qur'an's historical inadequacies. Muslim
scholars rarely have an informed understanding of the Bible or of
biblical theology and so remain ignorant of these realities.
Some contemporary Muslim voices on Jesus;
Yasser Arafat, addressing a press conference at the United Nations in
1983 called Jesus "the first Palestinian fedayeen who carried his
sword" (i.e. he was a freedom fighter for Islam).
Sheikh Ibrahim Madhi, employee of the Palestinian Authority, broadcast
live in April 2002 on Palestinian Authority television: "The Jews
await the false Jewish messiah, while we await, with Allah's help...
Jesus, peace be upon him. Jesus' pure hands will murder the
false Jewish messiah. Where? In the city of Lod , in
Palestine."
Author Shamim A. Siddiqi of Flushing , New York put the classical
position of Islam towards Christianity clearly in a recent letter to
Daniel Pipes, New York Post columnist:
"Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad were all prophets of Islam.
Islam is the common heritage of the Judeo-Christian-Muslim community
of
America , and establishing the Kingdom of God is the joint
responsibility of all three Abrahamic faiths. Islam was the din
(faith, way of life) of both Jews and Christians, who later lost it
through human innovations. Now the Muslims want to remind their Jewish
and Christian brothers and sisters of their original din [religion].
These are the facts of history."
This historical negationism - appearing to affirm Christianity and
Judaism whilst in fact rejecting and supplanting them - is a lynchpin
of Muslim apologetics. What is being affirmed is in fact neither
Christianity nor Judaism, but Jesus as a prophet of Islam, Moses as
Muslim etc. This is intended to lead to 'reversion' of Christians and
Jews to Islam, which is what Siddiqi refers to when he
speaks of 'the joint responsibility' of Jews and Christians to
establish
'the Kingdom of God '. By this he means that American Christians and
Jews should work to establish shari'ah law and the rule of Islam in
the United States .
Conclusion;
'Isa (Jesus) of the Qur'an is a product of fable, imagination and
ignorance. When Muslims venerate this 'Isa, they have someone
different in mind from the Yeshua or Jesus of the Bible and of
history. The 'Isa of the Qur'an is based on no recognized form of
historical evidence, but on fables
current in seventh century Arabia .
For most faithful Muslims 'Isa is the only Jesus they know. But if one
accepts this Muslim 'Jesus', then one also accepts the Qur'an: one
accepts Islam. Belief in this 'Isa is won at the cost of the libel
that Jews and Christians have corrupted their scriptures, a charge
that is without historical support. Belief in this 'Isa implies that
much of Christian and Jewish history is in fact
Islamic history.
The Jesus of the gospels is the base upon which Christianity
developed. By Islamicizing him, and making of him a Muslim prophet who
preached the Qur'an, Islam destroys Christianity and takes over all
its history. It does the same to
Judaism.
In the end times as described by Muhammad, 'Isa becomes a warrior who
will return with his sword and lance. He will destroy the Christian
religion and make Islam the only religion in the entire world. Finally
at the last judgment he will condemn Christians to hell for believing
in the crucifixion and the incarnation.
This final act of the Muslim 'Isa reflects Islam's apologetic strategy
in relation to Christianity, which is to deny the Yeshua of history,
and replace him with a facsimile of Muhammad, so that nothing remains
but Islam.
"The Muslim supersessionist current claims that the whole
biblical history of Israel and Christianity is Islamic history, that
all the Prophets, Kings of Israel and Judea , and Jesus were Muslims.
That the People of the Book should dare to challenge this statement is
intolerable arrogance for an Islamic theologian. Jews and Christians
are thus deprived of their Holy Scriptures and of their value."
- Bat Ye'or in Islam and Dhimmitude: where civilizations collide, p.
370.
APPENDIX:
The Historical Evidence for Jesus (Yeshua)
of
Nazareth and his Death by Crucifixion
Non-Christian sources for Jesus
· Tacitus (CE 55-120), a renowned historical of ancient Rome .
(Annals 15: 44).
· Suetonius, writing around CE 120.
· Thallus, a secular historian writing perhaps around CE 52.
Julius Africanus in the early 3rd century.
· Mara Bar-Serapion, a
Syrian writing after the destruction of the Temple in CE 70, mentions
the earlier execution of Jesus, whom he calls a 'King'.
· The Babylonian Talmud refers to the crucifixion.
· The Jewish historian Josephus, his Antiquities, written about CE
93/94. Josephus also refers to James the brother of Jesus and his
execution during the time of Ananus (or Annas) the high priest.
Paul's Epistles
· Paul's epistles were written in the interval 20-30 years after
Jesus' death. They are valuable historical documents. Paul became a
believer in Jesus within a few years of Jesus' crucifixion. He writes
in his first
letter to the Corinthians 'For I delivered to you first of all that
which I also received: that Christ died according to the Scriptures,
and that He was buried, and that He rose again on the third day
according to the Scriptures, and that he was seen by Cephas (Peter),
then by the twelve.' This makes clear that belief in the death of
Jesus was there from the beginning of Christianity.
The Four Gospels
· The four Gospels were written down in the period 20-60 years after
Jesus' death, within living memory of the events they describe.
The events that the gospels describe for the most part took place in
the full light of public scrutiny. We conclude that any statements
about 'Isa (Jesus) in the Qur'an, made six centuries after Jesus'
death, must
be judged against the historical evidence
from these first century sources, and not vice versa.
Some useful discussions of these issues are found at:
http://www.debate.org.uk/topics/theo/islam_christ.html
http://www.debate.org.uk/topics/theo/qur-jes.htm
http://www.answering-islam.org/Intro/replacing.html
Further reading: The Jesus I never knew, by Philip Yancey.
To contact the author: markd@xxxxxxxxxxxx
The author of these notes is an Anglican Minister at St Hilary's
Anglican Church
Kew. He is also a senior associate of the Department of Linguistics
and Applied
Linguistics at the University of Melbourne , with the honorary title
of Associate
Professor, and was formerly head of the Department of Linguistics and
Language
Studies. He has written several books on the language and culture of
the
Acehnese, an Islamic people of Indonesia , and was elected to the
Australian
Academy of Humanities in 1992 for this research work. He served as a
member of
the Council of the Academy for a term during the 1990's.
.
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