Re: Cumbric



Camow Cwntaf yn Gwmbraic - First Steps in Cumbric

Introduction


> Many Cumbric words have survived in Cumbric place-names as well as in
> Scots and English. Concerning the survival of Cumbric vocabulary, Mr.
> Whittaker in Volume Two, pages 233 to 329, in his History of Manchester,
> has provided a list of three thousand North Country Cumbric words that
> have entered the vocabulary of Standard English. In addition Mr.Davies
> supplied in a paper that he contributed to The Transactions of the
> Philological Society in 1885 another long list of North Country Cumbric
> words that have passed into Standard English. Mr. Davies commented that
> many low, burlesque, and obscene words in the Lancashire dialect can be
> traced back to Cumbric. Furthermore, Mr. Garnet in Volume One, page 171,
> of the Transaction of the Philological Society, also supplied a similar
> list of Cumbric words. Proof of the late survival of Cumbric as a spoken
> language in Cumbria exists in the place-name Cumwhinton, which contains
> the Norman personal name Quinton, and which means Quinton's Valley. In
> addition the survival of Cumbric field-names and the presence of three
> Cumbric words in a medieval manuscript called Leges Inter Brettos et
> Scottos lend further support for the persistence of Cumbric. The so called
> Shepherd's enumeration, which in fact was mainly used by knitters, must
> also be taken into account. Cumbric arose from Prythonic, which was the
> ancestor of all P Celtic languages. Prythonic developed into Proto-Welsh,
> Proto-Breton, Proto-Cornish, and Proto-Cumbric. It is possible that the
> area in which Proto-Cumbric was spoken even stretched much further south.
> Some Cumbric place-names, such as Larbet and Eccle Fechan, have even
> preserved elements of Cumbric grammar. These grammatical elements indicate
> that Cumbric was, with a few exceptions, identical to Medieval Welsh. In
> reconstructing Cumbric, there seems to be little difference between
> Cumbric and Welsh, but there is one important difference in that Cumbric
> speakers used loan words, whereas in Welsh this is not the case.
> Place-names such as Blennerhasset in Cumbria indicate that Scandinavian
> words were absorbed into Cumbric. This permits the adoption of the modern
> words of science and technology in Cumbric. Because of the ability of
> Cumbric to accept loan words paucity of vocabulary is no obstacle to the
> reconstruction of Cumbric, for example it is possible to borrow Welsh
> words, which Nance indeed did. In addition the edition of the Times
> newspaper of the 3rd. January 1991 carried a report that first appeared in
> Le Mond, according to which Lukiann Kergoat, the head of Breton and Celtic
> Studies at the University of Rennes, and chairperson of a committee called
> Kreizhenn ar Geriauin, intended to create twenty thousand new Breton word
> in order to bring Breton up to date by respelling Welsh words. In addition
> many Roman laws, taxes, policing, and modes of administration are recorded
> in the Doomsday Book as having survived in Northern England.
> Archaeological evidence at Wharram Percy, and field and air surveys over
> the North Yorkshire Moors, reveal continuity throughout the sub-Roman
> period without any evidence for the replacement of the native
> Romano-British population by Anglo-Saxons. The importance of this lies in
> the fact that the abandoned settlements and villages in the area, which
> arose from the eviction of the population in order to create grazing land
> for sheep, are veritable time capsules going back to the Roman occupation
> of Britain. The smallness of numbers of Angles in the North-East of
> England is indicated by the fact that once during a siege the Anglian
> population retired to Bamborough Rock, which would indicate that a small
> number of Angles ruled over a large population of Celtic peasants. The
> fate of these Angles after the Danish and Norwegian settlements of
> Northern England is likely that the Angles continued as broken men eking
> out a living on the edge of society, and that others departed. The
> reconstruction of Cumbric will at least restore a version of the ancient
> language not only of Northern England, but also the ancient language of
> Scotland.
>
>
>
> List of Abbreviations
>
>
>
> Bret. Breton
>
> Chs. Cheshire
>
> c. circa
>
> cf. confer
>
> Corn. Cornish (Kernewek)
>
> Cu. Cumberland
>
> Db. Derbyshire
>
> Dur. Durham
>
> Lancs. Lancashire
>
> Lei. Leicestershire
>
> M.W. Medieval Welsh
>
> Nrth. Northumberland
>
> Notts, Notthinghamshire
>
> R.C. Reconstructed Cumbric
>
> Shr. Shropshire
>
> Shrews. Shrewsbury
>
> Staffs. Staffordshire
>
> Wor. Worcestershire
>
> Wst. Westmorland
>
> W. Welsh
>
> Yorks. Yorkshire
>
> Cumbric Place-Names
>
>
>
> A
>
>
>
> Aberruthven: nr. Auchterrarder, Scot., cf. W. aber rudd faen, Corn. aber
> ruth ven, (red stone conflux), R.C. *aber rudd fain.
>
> Ashton-in-Makerfield: Lancs.., Ashton c.1225, cf. Ince-in-Makerfield;
> cf.W. magwyr & Corn magor (wall or ancient ruin). R.C. *magwy, variant
> *magor, see Eaglesfield.
>
> Aspatria: Cu., Aspatric c.1230, a Norse-Cumbric hybrid, this place-name
> preserves a Cumbric genitive.
>
>
>
> B
>
>
>
> Bannock Burn: Scot. Mid Lothian, cf.W. banog bryn. R.C. *bannawk or banoc
> bryn
>
> Barpennald: Cu., cf.W. bar pen allt & Corn. bar pen als, (top of chief
> cliff). R.C. *bar pen alth
>
> Barroc Fell: Cu., Barroc c.1295, cf. M.W. barawg, a spur. This place-name
> preserves a Cumbric adjectival suffix.
>
> Barwick-in-Elmet: cf.W. *Barwyg-yn-Elved, bar (hilltop) and gwyg
> (coppice).
>
> Bathgate: Scot., Bathchet, c.1160, Bathkethe c.1337, cf.W.baedd goed &
> Corn. both gos, (boar's wood). R.C. * baith gaith. NB. the lenition in the
> modern name; this is indicative of the persistence of Cumbric in the area.
>
> Birdoswald: Cu., Borddoswald c.1200, cf.W. buarth, (cow fold of dairy);
> cf. Burtholm. R.C. *burth
>
> Birkby: Cu., Brethesco c.1203, N. Breta Skogr, (Britton's Wood.); cf.
> Briscow.
>
> Blawith: Cu., Blawit c.1276, cf., W. blaedd wydd & Corn. blydd with (wolf
> wood). R.C. *blaith with
>
> Blencarn: Cu., Blencarne c.1159, Blenecarn c.1210, Blencarn 1211, cf. W.
> blaen y carn, cf. Corn. blyn an carn, (top of the burial mound); R.C.
> *blain carn, blain y carn
>
> Blencathra: Cu., Blenkarthure c. 1589, cf. W. blaen cader, (throne
> summit); R.C. *blain cadder. The alternative name for this fell is
> Saddleback.
>
> Blencogo: Cu., Blenecogou c.1292, cf. W. blaen y cogau & Corn. blyn an
> cogas, (hill of cuckoos). R.C. *blain y cogow. This place name preserves a
> Cumbric suffix.
>
> Blencow: Cu. Blenkhaw c.1254. A hybrid Cumbric-Norse place-name, *blain
> (haugr) meaning hill top.
>
> Blennerhesset: Cu. Blennerhaiseta c. 1188, a hybrid Cumbric-Norse
> place-name, *blain yr haisetr, meaning crest of the hay field. This
> place-name establishes that the definite article y became yr before H.
>
> Blindcrake: Cu. Blenecrayc c.1268, cf. W. blaen y cr aig, (summit of the
> rock); R.C. *blain y craic.
>
> Brant Fell: Yorks. a hybrid Cumbric-Norse place-name meaning steep
> hill/mountain. The word brant, together with its variant brent, are still
> in use as a dialect word meaning steep. This is an example of the survival
> of Cumbric in dialect as well as in a place-name.
>
> Bredon: Lei. Briudun c.730, meaning either the summit of a down or a fort.
>
> Breedon: Wor. Beodun c.722, as above.
>
> Briscow: Cu., Brethesco c.1203, see Birkby.
>
> Burtholm: Cu., Burtholm c.1256, a hybrid Cumbric-Norse place-name meaning
> a dairy or cow fold on the spur of a hill. See. Birdoswald.
>
>
>
> C
>
>
>
> Cairndinnis: Scot., near Dunplelder, cf.W. carn dinas (a mound retreat). A
> dinas was a temporary fortified retreat as distinct from caer, which was a
> permanent stone-built stronghold such as a castle or farm-house, also cf.
> Dinas Sitch Tor, Db. behind the Snake in on Snake Pass.
>
> Calder: Lancs., Kalder c.1200, cf. W. place-names Calettwr and Clettwr,
> (hard water, i.e. fast flowing river), W. called dwr; R.C. *caleth *dwr.
> The word cal has acquired a new meaning in Welsh and Cornish, therefore it
> is supposed the original was*Calthdwr.
>
> Cambeck: Nth. Camboc c.1169, Cambec c.1622, (a meandering stream).
>
> Camblesford: Yorks. Camelesford c.1311, cf.W. cam y lais, (bend on the
> stream). R.C. *cam y lais.
>
> Camerton: Cu., Camerton c. 1150, cf.W. cymmer, (conflux), R.C. *cwmmer.
>
> Capledre: Scot. Lochere in Linlithgow, cf.W. ceffyl dre, (horse town) R.C.
> *capel dre, cappel is a dialect word meaning a horse.
>
> Capplerigg: Cu., see Capledre above.
>
> Caraverick: Cu., Caraverick c.1150, the name of a lost settlement in Leath
> Ward of Cumberland. Caraverick c.1150, cf.W. caer efrog (farmhouse amid
> cowslips), R.D. *cair *afyric. NB. the intrusive y before R and initial E
> changed to A.
>
> Carcowe: Wst. a field-name in West Ward of Westmorland. A hybrid
> Cumbric-Norse field-name, *Cair Haugr. The importance of a Celtic word
> appearing in a field-name is that it indicates a late survival of spoken
> Cumbric in West Ward.
>
> Cardew: Cu., Carthew c.1287, cf. W. caer ddu, (black farmhouse), R.C.
> *cair *ddu.
>
> Cardrona: Traquair in Peebles, Scot., Cardronow c. 1500, cf.W. caer
> dronau, (fort circle, i.e., of standing stones), R.C. *cair dronow. This
> place name contains the cambric plural -ow.
>
> Cardunneth Pike: Cu., Cardunnoke c.1386, cf.W. caer Dunod, (Donatus'
> farmhouse), R.C. *cair Dunoth: see also Dintsmere, Chs., boundary of
> Donatus, also see Dinting, Chs., Dintinge, c. 1226, place of Donatus,
> Dinthill, Shrews., Dunthill c. 1200, hill of Dontatus, R.C. *Dunoth.,
>
> Cardurnock: Cu., Cardrunnoke, c. 1386, cf.W. caer *durenog (pebbly
> farmhouse), c f. W. duren (pebble, steel, flint). NB. the disappearance of
> E between consonant R and nasal N. R.C. *cair durnoc.
>
> Carfrae: Scot., Lauderdale in Berwickshire, cf.W. caer fre (hill fort).
> NB. this place-name has preserved the lenition of B into V. R.V. *cair fre
>
> Cark: Lancs. Karke c.1491, cf.W. careg (stone). NB. the disappearance of E
> between the consonants R and K. R.C. * carc.
>
> Carkin: Yorks. Karrecan c. 1200, Kercan, c. 1200, cf.W. careg can (white
> stone). See also Cargo, Cu. From Carec Haugr, hybrid Celtic-Norse
> place-name meaning White Hill. NB. the disappearance of E after R and
> before C. R.C. *carc can.
>
> Carnetly: Cu., Carnthelaue c.1230. (Burial Mound of Teilo.), cf.,
> Llanteilo in Wales. NB. that this place-name appears to preserve an
> aspirate mutation. R.C. * carn teilo.
>
> Carwath: Scot., Lanarkshire, Karnewid c.1179, Carnewithe c.1315, Carnwith
> c. 1451, cf.W. carn y gwydd (durial mound of trees), cf. Corn. carn an
> gwyth. R.C. *carn y gwydd.
>
> Carrick: Wst., cf. local dialect word currock and currick meaning a cairn
> or heap of stones, cf. Carrick in Scotland. The survival of Cumbric words
> in Scots and North Country dialect serves as the basis of the argument
> that Cumbric never really died out.
>
> Carrock Fell: Cu., Carroc c. 1208, cf.W. carog (fenced, walled, or
> fortified).R.C. *caroc.
>
> Carwinley: Cu., Carwyndelawe c. 1292, Karwendelowe c.1281, Carwyndelowe
> c.1300, cf. W. caer Wenddoleu (Gwenddoleu's Castle). R.C. *cair Wenddolaw.
>
> Castle Carrock: Cu., Castelcairoc x.1165, Castelcarroc c. 1212, cf. W.
> castell caerog. R.C. *castel cairoc.
>
> Castel Hewin: Cu., Castelewyne c.1272, Castle Hewin c.1794, cf.W. castell
> Ewain (Owen's castle). This castle is legended to have been the castle of
> Eugenius Caesarius, a king of Cumbria who expelled the Angles and
> re-established British rule after the Saxons had been driven out. R.C.
> *castel Ewain. RC. *cader lan.
>
> Catterlen: Cu., Caderlen c. 1165, cf. W. cader llan (hermitage throne).
> Cader in this case is from the Greek word kathedra meaning a bishop's
> throne. Cumberland, as well as Elmet and Cornwall, were Christian
> throughout the sub-Roman era, and were not reconverted to Christianity by
> Irish monks.
>
> Catterton: Yorks. Cadreton c.1230, a hybrid English and Cumbric place-name
> meaning fort enclosure. NB. This place-name preserves a Saxon word just as
> Blennerhasset has preserved a Norse word.
>
> Cairndinnis: Scot., near Dunpelder, this could possible mean the burial
> mound of Dionysius.
>
> Chadderton: Lancs. see Catterton.
>
> Cheadle: Chs. Chedle c.1153 (wood hill). A hybrid Cumbric and English
> place name.
>
> Cheetham: Lancs. Chetham c. 1226 (wood pasture) A hybrid Cumbric and
> English place name.
>
> Clesketts: Cu. Closchet c.1245, cf.W. clas coed (glebe wood), clas is an
> enclosed space, a green covering of grass, or glebe land. R.C. *clas
> caidd.
>
> Comberbach: Chs. Comburbach c.1333 (stream of the Cwmbro), cf.W. cymro,
> Corn. kembro, from Prythonic cumbrogi meaning a compatriot. R.C. * *cwmbro
> boc. NB. In Cumbric W and O did not become Y before nasal plus stop as in
> Welsh, Breton, and Cornish. This is a distinctive feature of Cumbric, one
> of several that indicate that Cumbric was a separate language even though
> similar to Welsh.
>
> Combermere: Chs. Cumbremara c.1157, (compatriot wasteland). R.C. *cwmbru
> myr.
>
> Comberford: Staffs, this indicates that Cumbric was once spoken in the
> North Midlands, see also. Wor. Comberton, Lancs Comberhalgh.
>
> Condor: Lancs. Condovere c.1246, cf.W. cam dwfr (crooked waters). R.C.
> *cam dwfr.
>
> Coulderton: Cu., Culdreton c.1180, cf.W. cul dir (narrow land). R.C. *cul
> dir. This is a very interesting place name because it acquired the English
> word ton in the 12th.century, which would indicate that it was about this
> time that Scots began to replace Cumbric in Cumberland, which was the last
> refuge of spoken Cumbric.
>
> Couwhencatte: Cu., Cumquencath c.1169. (Gwencad's valley). Gwencad is a
> personal name that means White Battle. R.C. *cwm Cwencadd. NB. the
> mutation of G into C.
>
> Culcheth: Lancs., Culchet c.1201, Kulcheth c.1246, cf. W. cul goed (narrow
> wood), RC. *cul gaidd.
>
> Culgaith: Cu., Culchet c.1203, Culgayth c.1232, cf. W. cul goed (narrow
> wood). Culgayth and Culgaith are verifications of the Reconstructed
> Cumbric *cul gaidd.
>
> Cumcath: Cu., Cumcache c.1292, cf.W. cwm cach (dung valley), RC. *cwm
> cach.
>
> Cumcrook: Cu., Cumcruk c.1295, cf.W. cwm crug (valley mound), RC. *cwm
> cruc.
>
> Cumdivock: Cu., Cumdevoc c. 1244. Devoc's Valley, Prythonic personal name
> Dubacos meaning Dark or Swathy Man, cf.W. duog (dark), RC. *dufoc. NB. the
> persistence of the intrusive F, which is absent in the Welsh version of
> this adjective.
>
> Cummersdale: Cu. Cumbredal c.1227. A hybric Cumbric and Norse place name
> meaning the Valley of the Cymru, cf. also Cumberland: Cumbraland c.945,
> cf. also Cumberhill in Derbyshire, Cumberworth in Yorkshire and
> Lincolnshire, see also Cumberbach cf. W. Cymru, RC. *Cwmbru. NB. The
> persistence of stop B after nasal M, and the persistence of W before nasal
> plus stop.
>
> RC. *Cwmbru
>
> Cumrew: Cu., Cumreu c.1200, Cumrew c.1209, cf.W. cwm rhiw, (valley slope).
> RC. *cwm riw.
>
> Cumwhinton: Cu., Cumquinton c.1227. Quinton's Valley. Quinton is a
> Norman-French personal name. This place-name is proof that Cumbric was
> spoken after William Duke of Normandy succeeded Edward the Confessor.
>
> Crakeplace Hall: Cu., Crakeplace c.1288, cf.W. craig plas (stone manor).
> RC. *craic plas.
>
> Crew: Chs. Cruwe c.1190, Cruue c.1288, cf.W. cryw (a ford or stepping
> stones), cf. Crewgarth in Cumberland,cf. W. cryw garth (ford farm)..RC.
> *cryw garth
>
> Crich: Db., Cryc c.1009, cf.W. crug (a hill). RC. *cruc.
>
> Crickheath: Shr., Cruchet c.1272, cf.W. crug (a mound). RC. *cruc gaidd
> (wood containing a burial mound).
>
> Crofton Bridge: Cu., formerly Waspatrickwath, meaning the Ford of
> Patrick's Servant. Patrick was a local saint who attained fame in Ireland,
> Gwaspatrick or Sevant of Patrick was a local fore-name.
>
> Cruckton: Shr. Crocton c.1272, Crokton c.1308, cf. W. crug (burial mound),
> RC. *cruc.
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> D
>
> Dacre: Cu., Dakre c.1292, cf. W. deigre (a tear drop). Dacre refers to a
> nearby stream, cf. Dacre in Yorkshire. NB. that the Welsh diphthong EI,
> pronounced as I, eye, and aye in English is pronounced as short A in
> Cumbric. RC. *daicre.
>
> Dacre Beck: Cu., Dakerbek c.1323, RC. *daicre boc (tear stream).
>
> Dalkieth: Scot., Dolchet c.1144, Dalkethe c.1337, cf.W. dal coed (meadow
> wood). RC.* dal caidd.
>
> Dalfibble: Scot., Dumfries, cf.W. dal pebyll (spread tent), RC.*dal febyl.
> NB. the mutation of P into F in this Cumbric place-name.
>
> Dane: Chs. Dauuen c.1220, Daan c.1416, cf.W. dafn (a drip), cf. also
> Davenport in Cheshire meaning 'Drip Paved Road'. RC.*dafn.
>
> Desoglin: Cu., Dassoglen c.1596. Oglen is related to the Welsh ogl meaning
> full of motion or life, in Welsh das means a heap. This place name could
> be construed to mean a heap of a certain substance that is full of certain
> living beings, but it probably refers to nearby marshy ground. RC. *das
> oglyn.
>
> Devoke: Duvokeswater c. 1205, Duffockiswatir c.1280, the place-name means
> Dubacos' Lake, water referring to a lake or loch.
>
> Dinthill: Shrews. Duntull c.1299, (Donatus' hill), cf. Dintsmere: Chs.
> Donatus' boundary mark, also Dinting: Chs. Duntinge c.1226,
> (Donatus'place),
>
> Dinwiddie: Scot. Roxburgh, Dunwedy c.1504, cf. Dunwoody in Dumfries, cf.
> W. gwyddfa (woody place, a Bardic seat), and cf. Gwyddfa (Snowdon). NB.,
> Dinwiddie and Dunwoody would be suitable places to hold a Scottish
> Eisteddfod.
>
> Dollerline: Cu., Dallerline c.1598, cf.W. dol ar lefniad (loop on the
> smoothness). RC. *dol ar lefni. This place name refers to an ox-bow.
>
> Douglas: Lancs., cf.W. glais (a stream), see also Diggles in Lancashire,
> both meaning black stream. RC. *du glais, NB. that the adjective precedes
> the noun. Douglas is also the surname of a well known Lancashire family,
> and is also used as a forename.
>
> Dove Dale: Db. Duuendale c.1296, cf. River Dove in Derbyshire, Dufan
> c.951, Duue c. 1228, cf. also Dove Holes in Derbyshire. RC. *dufyn,
> diminutive of *duf meaning dark.
>
> Dover Beck: Notts. Doverbec c.1227, cf.W. dwfr (waters). RC. *dwfr boc
> (stream of waters).
>
> Dunreggit: Scot., Fort of Rheged, see Rochdale. Rheged was a British
> kingdom that included S.E. Scotland and N.W. England. RC. *dwn regedd.
>
> Dreva: Scot., Tweed. Cf.W. y dre fa (the village place). RC. *y dre fa.
> NB. the lenition.
>
> Drumburgh: Cu., Drumboc c.1225. Old Welsh drwm bach (small ridge). RC.
> *drwm bach.
>
> E
>
>
>
> Eccles: Lancs. Eccles c.1200, cf. Yorks Ecclesall, Eccleshale c.1205, cf.
> Ecclesfield, Ecclesfeld c.1109, Eccleshill, and Lancs. Eccleston,
> Ecclestine c. 1190, Great & Little Eccleston, Ecleston c.1285, and Db
> Eccles Pike, Ecclesbourne, and Staff. Eccleshall, and Drh. Egglescliffe,
> and Cu. Eglesfield, Eglesfeld c.1290, and Scot. Ecclefechan, cf. W. eglwys
> & Corn. Eglos, NB. the archaicism of these place-names in that the final
> vowel remained unchanged. RC. *egles.
>
> Eddleston: Scot. Formerly Pentiacob, Jacob's penthouse. RC. *pent Iacob
>
> Eglesbreth: Scot. Mid Lothian, cf.W. eglwys braith. R.C. egles braith
>
> Etherow: Chs. Ederhou c.1221, Ederou c.1285, Edderowe c.1290, cf. W. edd
> (glide), and haw (sluggish). RC. *edd yr how.
>
> Ewanrigg: Co. Evenrigg c.1295, Ouenrig c.1332, Owain's Ridge. RC. *Owain
>
>
>
> G
>
>
>
> Gawswoth: Chs. Gouseworth c. 1276, cf.W. gof (a smith). RC. *gof
>
> Gilcrux: Cu. Killecruce c. 1175, cf.W. cil y crug (retreat by the
> hillock). Rc. *cil y cruc.
>
> Glasgow: Scot. Glasgu c.1136, cf.W. glas gau (green hollow). RC. *glas
> gow.
>
> Glencoyn: Cu.Glencaine c.1212 Glenekone c.1255, Glencon c.1291, cf.W. glyn
> cawn (valley of reed). RC. *glyn cown
>
> Glencoyne: Wst. Glencaine c.1212, Glenekone c.1255, Glencon c.1291,
> Glenkwent c.1577, Glenkwen c.1622. NB. This and the above place-name have
> been influence by the imposition of the English Gaelic word cain, meaning
> beautiful. The elements of English Gaelic in place-names are too few to
> attempt the reconstruction of English Gaelic.
>
> Glendermackin: Cu. Glenermakon c.1278, cf.W. glyn y magon (valley of
> berries.) RC. *glyn y macon.
>
> Glenderterra: Cu. Glunduvar c.1247, Glenderterray c.1729, cf.W. glyn dwfr
> terion (valley of pure water.) RC. *glyn dwfr terion. NB. The 18thcent.
> place-name has preserved *terion.
>
> Glenridding: Wst. Glenredyn c.1292, cf.O.W. glinn redin, W. glyn rhedyn.
>
> Glensax: Scot. Peebles, and Gensaxon in Dumfries, cf.W. glyn sais (Saxon
> Valley.) RC. *glyn saix. NB. The Cumbric archaism preserves the
> penultimate C.
>
> Goyt: Chs. Recorded as both Gwith and Gote in the 14th cent., cf.W. gwyth
> (a narrow channel), Corn. goth & gwith. RC. *gwyth & goth. NB. The Welsh
> diphthong WY appears either as WI or O in Cumbric and Cornish. The
> pronunciation of long O as the diphthong OI was once a feature of the
> local dialect.
>
> Govan: Scot. Mid Lothian, Guun c.1134, Guuan c. 1150, Govan c. 1275, Gwuan
> c. 1275, cf. W. ban (point, hill, or crest). R.C. *gwovan also *govan (a
> small hill or slight crest of land).
>
> Gragareth: The Three Men of Gragareth: Yorks, Whernside, a topographical
> feature. Could be reconstructed into Welsh as y tri mein y gorgaered,
> meaning the three rocks (y tri mein) of the limit (gor) of the city wall
> (gaered). RC. *y tri mein y gor gairedd.
>
>
>
> H
>
>
>
> Hesketh: Lancs. Heschate c.1288, Heskayth c.1298, c.W. hais coed (prickle
> wood). RC. *hais caidd.
>
> Heskin: Lancs. Heskyn c.1257, cf. W. hesgen (sedge, rush). RC. *hescen.
>
> Hints: Staff. Hintes c.1199, also Hints, Shr. Hintes c. 1242, Hyntes
> c.1292, cf.W. hynt (road, way, course). RC. *hynt
>
>
>
> I
>
>
>
> Ince: Chs. Ynes c.1100, also Ince in Makerfield, cf.W. ynys. RC. *ynys
>
> Inchkieth: Scot., cf.W. ynys coed (island wood). RC. *ynys caith.
>
>
>
> K
>
>
>
> Kent: Lancs. A river-name, also Kennet, cf.W.cynnwyd (primary element).
> RC. *cynnwith, var. *cynnoth.
>
> Kenyon: Lancs. Kenien c.1212, cf.W. crug Enion (Enion's burial mound). RC.
> *cruc Enion.
>
> Ketton: Rut. Ketene c.1174, Chetena c.1146, cf.W. coeden (a tree). RC.
> *caidden
>
> Kieth: Scot. Mid Lothian, this has inspired the personal name Kieth, which
> means a wood, cf. W. coed, Corn. cos, and Bret. Koaz.. R.C. *caidd
>
> Kirkbrynnok: Cu. c.1339. A lost place-name, Kirkja Brynach, Brynach's
> Church. Note the adoption of a Norse word yet Celtic grammar.
>
> Kirkcambeck: Cu. Camboc c.1177, Kirkecamboc c.1280. Church (kirkja) on the
> crooked stream (camboc).
>
> Kirkley: Nth. Crikelawa c. 13th. Cent. A hybrid Celtic Saxon word meaning
> hill (cruc) hill (hlaw).
>
> L
>
>
>
> Lamplough: Cu. Lamplou c. 1150, cf.W. llan plwyf, (parish church), cf.
> Corn. lan plov. RC. *lan plof.
>
> Lanark: Scot. Cf.W. llanerch (hay-field). RC. *lanarch. NB. The short E
> before R plus stop has become short A.
>
> Landican: Cu. Landekan c. 1281, cf. Llandegfan in Anglesay, Tegfan's
> Church. RC. *lan decfan. NB. Note the lenition.
>
> Lanercost: Cu. Lanercost c. 1271, cf.W. llanerch Awst, Augustus's
> hay-field. RC. *lan Owst.
>
> Lanrekaythin: Cu. Lanrecaithin c.1210. A lost place-name, cf.W. llanerch
> eithin (meadow of furze). RC. *lanarch aithin.
>
> Larbet: Scot., Sterlingshire, Lethberth c. 1196, cf.W. leddberth
> (semi-bush). RC. *leddberth.
>
> Laver: Yorks. Lauer c. 1307, also. Laversdale in Cumberland, Laverton in
> Yorkshire, a river-name, cf.W. llafr (spreading) RC. * lafer.
>
> Leeds: Yorks. Loidis c.730 (Bede), Ledes c.1196, possible a river-name
> meaning flowing.
>
> Leen: Notts. Liene c.1200, also Lyne in Northumberland, Lina c.1050, cf.W.
> lliant (torent). RC. *lian. NB. Absence of final S.
>
> Leswalt: Scot. Galloway, cf.W. llys wellt (grassy court of manour house).
> RC. *lys walt. NB. Note the change of short E into short A before liquid
> plus stop. In Welsh gwallt means hair.
>
> Leven: Chs. A river-name, Levene c.12^0, also Leven in Lancashire and
> Yorkshire, cf.W. llyfniad (smootness). RC. *lyfeni.
>
> Lickle: Lancs. River-name, Licul c.1140, cf.O.W. llig (gliding out or
> through). RC. *licol (abounding in water courses)..
>
> Lindefferon: Scot. Fife, see Hint, cf.W. llyn dwr hynt (flowing water
> course). RC.*lin dwr hynt.
>
> Lindow: Chs. cf.W. llyn ddu (black lake).
>
> Lindreth: Cu. cf.W. llyn ddrud (flow-rapid, i.e. a torrent). RC. *lin
> ddrudd.
>
> Lingmell Crag: cf W. grug moel craig (heather-bald crag). RC. * ling mail
> craic.
>
> Linlithgow: Scot. Linlithcou c.1150, cf.W. llyn llaith cau (lake wet
> hollow). RC. *lin laith cow.
>
> Liscard: Chs. Lisenecark c.1256, cf.W. llys y carreg (stone manour house).
> RC. lis yn carrec. NB. The definite article yn.
>
> Liverpool: Lancs. Liverpul c.1194, Litherpol c.1222, cf. W. llifr pwl
> (conflux pool) and litthr pwl (slip pool). This is a reference to a small
> pool that gave haven to fishing boats in medieval times, and which later
> served as a dock, but which has since been filled in. RC. *lifr pwl,
> *lithr pwl.
>
> Lothersdale: Yorks. Loderesden c.1202, Lothereston c.1285, also Lauderdale
> in Scotland, cf.W. lleidr (bandit), and cf. Corn lader (a thief). RC. *
> cwm laiddr (bandit valley).
>
> Lyne: Cu. Luene c.1292. RC. *lefeni. See Leven above.
>
> Lyvennet: Wst. River-name Levenyd c.1292, Leveneth c.1292. This river is
> called Llwyfenyd in the Welsh translation of Taliesin's original Cumbric
> poem Urien of Rheged. RC. *lofenydd.
>
> Lizard: Shp. Lusgerde c.664, lisgarde c.1291, cf.W. llys garth (court
> farm). RC. *lys garth.
>
>
>
> M
>
>
>
> Mabbin Hill: Wst. personal name Mabon.
>
> Macefen: Chs. Masefen c.1260, cf.W. maes y ffin (field at the boundary).
> RC. *mais y ffin.
>
> Maidencastle: Cu. formerly Carthonock c.1589, Thannock's Castle.
>
> Mallerstang: Wst. Malrestang c.1223, Malvestang c.1228, cf.W. moel fre
> (bald mountain), and cf. Nor. stongr (staff). RC. *mail fre stang.
>
> Mamhead: Db. Mammeheved c.1242, cf.W. maen (a stone), cf.Manchester,
> Mansfield, Mamesfeld c.1093, Mam Tor, etc. RC. *main. NB. This place name
> includes the Norse word for head.
>
> Manor: Scot., Peebles, Maner c.1323, cf.W. maenor (a district marked by
> stones, or a manor house). RC. *mainor.
>
> Maryport: Cu. formerly Aylnfoote c.1656. The river Ayln was called the
> Alavna in Roman times. Ayln foot means the mouth of the Ayln; this is a
> Celtic turn of phrase. Sir Humphrey Senhouse changed Aylnfoot into
> Maryport after his wife Mary.
>
> Maughonby: Cu. Merchamby c.1254. A Cumbric-Norse hybrid place-name meaning
> Mercion's farm, from Roman personal name Marcianus. NB. The survival of
> Romano-British personal names would suggest the survival of a
> Romano-British population.
>
> Meckfen: Scot, Perthshire, Mekfen c. 1226, Mecven c.1443, cf.W. mign maen
> (bog stone). RC. *myc fain.
>
> Megget Water: Scot., Selkirkshire, also Meggeth, Cu., cf.W. mignydd (a
> bog), also
>
> mignoedd (bogs). RC. * mygydd, pl. *mygaidd.
>
> Meigle: Scot., Perthshire, Migdele in The Legend of Saint Michael, cf.W.
> mign dol (bog meadow). RC. *mig dol.
>
> Melkinthorpe: Wst. Melcanetorp c.1150, cf. O.W. personal name Mailcun,
> cf.O.Ir. Maelcian.
>
> Mellor: Lancs. Melver c.1246, also Mellor Db. Melner c.1330, cf.W. moel
> fre (bald hill). RC. *mail fre.
>
> Melrose: Scot., cf.W. moel rhos, also Corn. mol ros (bald heath). RC. *
> mail ros.
>
> Menstrie: Scot. Clackmannen, Mestry c.1315, Menstry c.1392, cf.W. maes y
> tre, also Corn. mes an tre (village of the open plain). RC. *mais tre,
> and *mais yn tre. NB. The spellings menstry suggest that the definite
> article became yn before a dental.
>
> Methvan: Scot., Perthshire, Methven c.1211, cf.W. medd faen, also Corn.
> meth ven (mead stone). RC. *medd fain.
>
> Migvie: Scot., Stratherrich, cf.W. mign fa (a boggy place). RC.* mig fy
>
> Morcambe Bay: Lancs. Cf. W. mor cam (crooked sea). NB. This is an example
> of a trap for the unwary. Morcambe Bay was suggested by in Whitaker's The
> History of Manchester 1771, as the sight of Ptolemy's Marikambe. There is
> a Marricambe Bay in Cumberland whose origin is obscure. Pennines is
> another such trap. The original name was Riggings, meaning the Ridges. The
> name Pennines is an adaptation of the Appenines in Italy.
>
> Morphie: Scot., Kincardine, cf.W. mor fa (sea place). RC. * mor fy.
>
>
>
> N
>
>
>
> Newton Arlosh: Cu. Arlosk c.1185, cf.W. llosg (fire). RC. *arlosc (land
> cleared by burning) NB. Arlosh contains the intensive prefix ar- (over),
> this indicates that such prefixes were in use in Cumbric.
>
> Niddrie: Scot., Edinburgh, Nudref c.1290, Nodref c.1336, cf.W. newydd dref
> (new town), also Corn. noweth dref. RC. * now dref.
>
> Noe: Db. A river-name, Noue c.1300, cf.W. nofio (to swim). RC. nofio (to
> flow or to
>
> float).
>
> O
>
>
>
> Ochiltree: Scot., Kyle and Galloway, Uchiltre c.1304, Uchiltrie c.1406,
> cf. W uchel tre (high village), also cf. Corn. ughel tre. RC. *uchel tre.
>
> Ogilvie: Scot., Perthshire, cf.W. uchel fa (high place), also cf. Corn.
> ughel va. RC. *uchel vy.
>
>
>
>
>
> P
>
>
>
> Panbridge: Scot., Forfarshire, Pannebride c 1261, cf.W. pant Brigid
> (Briget's valley). RC. * pan y Brigidd. NB. The G is a jod.
>
> Panmure: Scot., Forfarshire, Pannemor c. 1261, cf.W. pant mawr (big
> valley), also cf. Corn. pans mur. RC. *pan y mowr.
>
> Pant: Scot. (Stair Parish in Ayrshire), cf.W. pant (valley), cf. Corn.
> pans. RC. *pant.
>
> Pant: Wst. a field-name in Kendell Ward, cf.W. pant. RC. *pant. NB.
> Field-names indicate a late survival of Cumbric.
>
> Pardovan: Scot. Linlithgowshire, Purduuyn c. 1282, Pardovin c. 1542, cf.
> W. par ddwfn (deep field), also Pardovingishill, Scot. Renfrewshire. RC.
> *par ddwfn.
>
> Parton: Scot. Cf.W. perth (a bush). RC. *perth.
>
> Parwich: Db. Peuerwich c.966, cf.W. pefr wyg (bright farm or copse). RC.
> *pefr wic.
>
> Patterdale: Cu. Patrichesdale c. 1148. NB. Patrick's valley.
>
> Peebles: Scot. Cf.W. pabell (a tent or pavillion). RC. *pabel.
>
> Peffer: Scot. Cf.W. pefr (bright). RC. *pefr.
>
> Pencaitland: Scot. Penketland c.1296, cf.W. pen coed llan (end of the
> wood), cf.Corn. pen cos lan. RC. *pen caidd lan.
>
> Penhurrock: Wst. c.1777. NB. Currock and currick are local words for a
> heap of stones or a cairn. The currock in question is a stone circle on a
> tumulus, grid 83-629104.
>
> Pen Howe: Wst. a field-name in Kendall ward, a hybrid Cumbric-Norse
> place-name, pen haugr.
>
> Penistone: Scot. Selkirk, cf.W. pen yr ystrum (head of the bend). RC. *pen
> ystrum.
>
> Penistone: Yorks. Peningeston c.1199, cf.W. pen yr ystrum.RC. *pen yn
> ystrum.
>
> Pennystone: Scot. Kirkmabrek, cf.W. pen yr ystrum (head of the bend). RC.
> *pen ystrum.
>
> Penicuik: Scot. Edinburgh, cf.W. pen y coed, cf. Corn. pen an ***. RC.
> *pen y coc. NB. This place-name, together with Blencogo, determines that
> the ultimate C in coc became G in the plural, hence sing. *coc pl. *cogow.
>
> Penketh: Lancs. Penket c. 1242, Penketh c. 1259, cf.W. pen coed (wood end)
> cf. Corn. pen cos, cf. Bret. Pen koad. RC. *pen caidd.
>
> Penkridge: Staffs. Pencric c.958, cf.W. pen crug. RC. *pen cruc.
>
> Penmanshiel: Scot. Berwickshire, a hybrid Cumbric and Norse place-name
> containing Norse skali (a shelter), cf.W.pen maen. RC. *pen main
>
> Pennigant: Scot. Roxburgh, cf.W. pen y gaint (end of the plain). RC.*pen y
> gaint (end of the plateaux).
>
> Penyghent: Yorks. Penegent c.1307. NB. Alternative pronunciations for the
> diphthong AI.
>
> Pennymure: Scot. Roxburgh, cf. W. pen y mur (end of the wall). RC. *pen y
> mur.
>
> Penersax: Scot. Dumfriesshire, cf.W. pen y sais (hill of the Saxon). RC.
> *pen yr sacs.
>
> Penpont: Scot. Dumfries, cf.W. pen pont (bridge end), cf. Penpons in
> Cornwall. RC. *pen pont.
>
> Penrith: Cu. Penred c. 1167, Penreth c. 1185, Penerith c.1367, cf.W. pen
> rhyd (ford end), cf.Corn. pen res. RC. *pen rydd.
>
> Pensax: Wor. Pensex c 1231 (Saxon hill).
>
> Penty: Scot. Lanarkshire, cf.W. pendy (main house, i.e. manor house). NB.
> No lenition in penty.
>
> Peover: Chs. Peuere c. 1277, cf.W. pefr (bright). RC. *pefr.
>
> Pilling: Lancs. Pylin c.1246, cf.W. pyll (pool or creek). RC.* pylen
> (diminutive, small pool or creek).
>
> Plenmellior: Nb. Plenmenewre c.1256, Playnmelor c.1279, cf.W. blaen moel
> vre (summit of bald mountain). RC. *blain mail vre. NB. The initial sharp
> mutation of B into P is unexplained.
>
> Plenploth: Scot., cf.W. blaen y plwyf (parish front or before the parish).
> RC. *blain plof
>
> Poltragow: Cu. Poltraghaue c.1485, cf.W. pwll trachau (hills protruding
> into lowland). RC. *pol trachow.
>
> Polmaise: Scot. Stirlingshire, cf.W. pwll maes (field pool). RC. *pol
> mais.
>
> Pontheugh: Scot. Berwickshire, Hugh's Bridge.
>
> Preesall: Lancs. Preshoved, Preshoved c.1190. A Hybridf Cumbric and Norse
> place-name meaning Brushwood Head, cf.W. prys (brushwood, fuel), cf.Corn
> pres (meadow). RC, *prys.
>
> Presmennan: Scot. East Lothian, Presmunet c. 1160, cf. W. prys mynedd R.C.
> *prys monydd. NB. O before nasal plus stop remains unaltered.
>
> Prenlas: Scot. Leslie Parish in Fife, cf.W. pren glas (green plank). NB.
> The lenition in Prenlas. RC.* pren las. NB. Lenition.
>
> Priorsdale: Cu. Presdale c.1280, cf.W. prys.
>
>
>
> R
>
> Raswraget: Cu. a lost place-name in Eskdale Ward, Roswrageth c.1169, cf.W.
> rhos wragedd (woman moor). RC. * ros wragedd.
>
> Redmain: Cu. Redeman c.1188, cf.W. Rhyd y Maen (ford of stone) in
> Dolgelly. RC. *ryd y main.
>
> Roch: Lancs. River-name, Rachet c. 1292, cf.W. rheged (liberality,
> largess, bounty). Rheged, an ancient Romano-British and Christian kingdom
> in England during the Dark Ages. RC. * Regedd.
>
> Rochdale: Lancs. Rachedal c.1195, Rachedham c.1193, (valley of the river
> Roch.)
>
> Roose: Yorks. Rossa c. 1135, also Roose in Derbyshire, Rosse c.1156, Roose
> in Cheshire, Roose c.1336, also Roos and Rossal in Lancashire, cf.W. rhos
> (moor, heath). RC. *ros.
>
> Ruthven: Scot. Perthshire, cf.W. rhudd faen (red stone), cf.Corn. ruth
> ven. RC. rudd fain.
>
>
>
> S
>
> Seisdon: Staffs. Saiesdona c. 1130, Seisdon c.1243, Saxon's Down, cf.W,
> sais (Saxon), cf. Corn. saws (saxon). NB. Compare with Penersax and
> Glensax. RC. *sais.
>
> Sherbourn-in-Elmet: Yorks. Silva Elmete c.730, Elmed saeta (Bede), Elmet
> c. 800, Elmete c.1212, Elmeticos found on a tombestone in Carnarvan, cf.W.
> Elvyd.
>
>
>
> T
>
> Talkin Fell: Cu. Talkenfell c.1589, cf. W.& Corn., tal (brow) and can
> (white), Bret. Tal kan. RC. *tal can,
>
> Tallentire: Cu. Tanentire c.1160, cf.W. tal y tir (end of the land), Corn.
> tal an tyr. RC. *tal yn tir, NB. The definite article before dental.
>
> Tarnmonath Fell: Cu. This is a hybrid Cumbric and Norse place-name, cf. W.
> mynydd, (mountain) cf.Corn meneth. Tarn from tjorn. RC. *monydd. NB. This
> place-name preserves the Cumbric word *monydd as monath. The vowels O and
> U before nasal plus stop did not in Cumbric, unlike the rest of the
> P-Celtic languages, experience sound change. This in itself is sufficient
> to establish Cumbric as a separate language in itself, and not just a
> dialect of Welsh. Note also the ability of Cumbric to adopt load words
> such a tjorn.
>
> Tarn Wadling: Cu. Ternewathelan c. 1338, cf.W. Gwyddelan as in the
> place-name Dol Wyddelan in Carnarvanshire. The word Gwyddel can mean
> either a pre-Celtic inhabitant or an Irishman. RC. *gwyddelan. In local
> legend the tarn or lake, which was filled in some time ago, was the lake
> from which Arthur's sword came. RC. *tarn wyddelan.
>
> Tarvin: Chs. Tervin c.1209, cf.W. terfyn (boundary), from Lat. terminus.
>
> Teman: Cu. Tenman c.1346, Temayne c.1568, cf.W. tan maen (fire stone),
> cf.Corn. ten men. RC. * tan main. NB. Teanen bonfires were lit at May Eve
> and Halloween in the Pennines and elsewhere, and cattle were passed
> through two bonfires to cure murrain, tean is a dialect word for a
> bonfire.
>
> Tercrosset: Cu. Torcrossoc c.1193, cf.W. croesog (abounding in crosses),
> cf. Corn. crowsek. RC. *tor crosoc. NB. The origin of the Cumbric word
> *tor, which abounds expecially in Derbyshire and Cumbrian 12th century
> place-names, is enigmatic. Place-name experts are of the opinion that 12th
> century Cornish tin miners were brought into Derbyshire to mine lead and
> bluestone, and into Cumbria to mine graphite for pencils, and they brought
> the word tor, which is said to mean a tower, with them by naming cliffs
> and rocky prominences that look like towers tors, such as Mam Tor in
> Derbyshire. There is a Welsh word tor, which means a bulge, and it appears
> in Welsh place-names such as Tor y Mynydd, but place-name experts discount
> any Welsh influence in favour of the theory wandering twelfth century
> Cornish tin miners, for example it would be foolish to consider a Cumbric
> origin for Mam Tor such as *Main Tor y Monydd because Mam Tor is
> undoubtedly shaped like the tower of a Cornish tin mine.
>
> Terregles: Scot. Galloway, formerly Traveregles, cf. Corn. place-name
> Treveglos (church town or a village containing the parish church). RC.
> *tref yr egles.
>
> Torpenhow: Cu. Torpennoc c.1163, cf. W. penog (abounding in peaks). RC.
> *torpenoc. NB. It is possible that the wandering Cornish tin miners, so
> beloved by place-name experts, first wandered through Wales, then
> Derbyshire, and finally to Cumberland, picking up a smattering of Welsh on
> the way, such as the Welsh word penog, hence a Cornish and Welsh hybrid
> place name *tor penog.
>
> Trabroun: Scot., in Lauderdale, Treuerbrun c.1170, cf.W. tref y bryn
> (village on the hill), also Trabroun in Haddington, Scotland. RC. *tref yr
> bryn. NB.Definite article.
>
> Trenant: Scot. Edinburgh, formerly Trevernent, cf.W. tref y neintydd (town
> of the steep sided valley). RC. * tref yr neint. NB. Note the definite
> article and the Cumbric plural of the word nant.
>
> Traprain: Scot. Haddington, Trepren c.1335, cf.W. trefbren (plank
> village). It if possible that this settlement was composed of scalis,
> which consists of planks covered in turves and fashioned in a circular
> pattern, the ends of the planks being fixed by a circle of stones, the
> original for Hobbit Hole .RC. *tre pren NB. No lenition.
>
> Treales: Chs. cf. W. tref y llys (village containing the court, which is
> to say the court of the local dengi or ruler and tax collector).
>
> Trevercraig: Scot. Carrick, cf.W. tref y craig (village of stone), also
> Trevercrageis: Ayrshire in Scotland. RC. * tref yr craic.
>
> Triermain: Cu. Treverman c.1169, cf.W. tref y maen (village of stone). RC.
> *tref yr main.
>
> Troloss: Scot. Lanarkshire, cf.W. tre llwst (village tail), cf. Corn. tre
> lost. RC. * tre lwst.
>
> Trusty's Hill: Scot. This place-name refers to Tristan who was a local
> chief, viz. the legend of Tristan and Isolde.
>
> Tulketh: Lancs. cf.W. twll coed (cave or pit wood). RC. *twl caidd.
>
>
>
> W
>
>
>
> Warren Burn: Nb. Warnet c.1157, cf.W. gwernydd (alder trees, or a bog or
> marsh). RC.*gwarnydd. NB. E before R plus stop becomes A.
>
> Watermellock: Cu. Wethermelok c.1253, cf.W. gwydr moelog (green or blue
> baldness, i.e. a heath). RC. *gwydr mailoc.
>
> Werneth Low: Chs. Wernyth c.1352, cf,W, gwernydd (alder trees).
> RC.*gwernydd.
>
> Wharf: Yorks. A river-name, Verbeia, meaning a winding river, Weorf c.963,
> Werf c.1112, Warf c. 1155, Hwef c.1155. RC. *gwerf & *gwarf. NB. The
> pesent name is from the Norse word hvarf, which means a bend. Note also
> how E before R became A in the second spelling. This sound change is a
> feature of Cumbric.
>
> Winister: Wst. Winster c.1170, cf.Gwensteri (white stream) in a verse by
> Taliesin. RC. *gwyn ysteri.
>
> Winwick: Lancs. Winequic c.1170, Wynewich c.1212, cf.W. gwyn wyg (white
> village), cf.Corn. gwyn wyk. RC. gwyn wyc.
>
>
>
> Y
>
> Yeavering: Nb. Adgefrin (Bede), Yever c.1242, Yevre c.1329, also Yeavering
> Bell, a nearby hill, cf. W geifr ryn (goat's hill), cf.Corn. gever bryn.
> RC. *geifr ryn. NB. G pronounced as a jod, as in Welsh.
>
> Yanwath: near Penrith, cf.W. un (one, only, single). RC. *un wadd. (only
> ford). NB. Gwadd is a loan word from Norse vadr meaning a ford.
>
>
>
>
>
> Phonology
>
>
> The next step is to create a Standard Reconstructed Cumbric, or S.R.C., by
> examining the surviving written sources of Cumbric from place-names. This
> made the task easier by the fact that there are remarkable similarities
> between Cumbric and Welsh and Cornish, especially the variety of Cornish
> known as Kernewek. This chapter has three parts, the first part
> deals with Prythonic vowels and their development, the second part deals
> with the respelling of Welsh vowels into Cumbric, and the third part deals
> with the respelling of Welsh consonants into Cumbric.
>
>
>
> Vowels
>
>
>
> Prythonic
> short-A
>
>
> Prythonic short-A remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
> Cumbric.
> Examples of Prythonic short-A can be found in many Cumbric place-names
>
> Prythonic long-A
>
>
> Prythonic long-A changed into long-O or O-mega in proto-Welsh,
> proto-Cornish, proto-Breton, and proto-Cumbric, but long-O subsequently
> changed into the diphthong consisting of short OU in Welsh, Cornish, and
> Breton, but because long-O is still a feature of North British speech it
> has
> been retained in S.R.C. Examples of long-O can be found in medieval Cambok
> and Kirkecambok.
>
> Prythonic short-E
>
>
> Prythonic short-E remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, but in
> Cumbric short-E changed into short-A before the consonants L and R, as in
> the place-names Leswalt, Warren Burn, Parton, and Tarvin. An intrusive
> short-E also developed in Cumbric between the consonants stop plus L and
> R.
> This is particularly evident in the place-name Lotherdale, of which the
> lother is derived from Latin latronis, cf. Cornish lader, meaning thief.
> Short-E disappeared between L and R followed by a stop, for example
> Cardurnock and the Welsh word durenog, the Cumbric element durn
> corresponding to Welsh duren. Note also the Cumbric word galnas in Leges
> Inter Brettos et Scottos, which corresponds to Welsh galanas.
>
>
>
> Prythonic long-E
>
>
>
> Prythonic long-E became long-I in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and Cumbric, for
> example the Cumbric place-name Keer derived from Prythonic *ceros.
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> Prythonic
> short-I
>
>
> Prythonic short-I remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
> Cumbric.
>
>
> Prythonic short-O
>
>
> Prythonic short-O remained unchanged in Cumbric, but in Welsh, short-O
> became short-U before a nasal and before a liquid plus stop, and short-I
> in
> pretonic syllables, for example the Welsh word mynydd appears with short-O
> in the place-name Tarnmonath
>
>
>
> Prythonic long-O
>
>
> Prythonic long-O became the diphthong short-OU in Welsh, Cornish,
> Breton, and Cumbric, but because long-O persists in local dialect,
> long-O perhaps remained unchanged in Cumbric.
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> Prythonic short-U
>
>
> Prythonic short-U generally remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, and
> Breton, but
> there was a tendency for it to become short-O in Cumbric, as in Pardovan
> and Troloss. Short U became short I in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton before
> a nasal plus stop, but remained unchanged in Cumbric.
>
> .
>
>
> Prythonic long-U
>
>
>
> Prythonic long U became long-I in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and Cumbric, but
> place-name evidence indicate that this change was slow in Cumbric, but the
> place-names Cardew and Dintsmere indicate this sound change.
>
>
> Prythonic long-W
>
> Prythonic long-W remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
> Cumbric, as in the Cumbric place-names Polmaise and Poltragon.
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> Diphthongs
>
>
>
> AE
>
>
>
> The Welsh diphthong AE becomes either short-E in Cumbric, as in Blencarn,
> Blencathra, Blencogo, Blencow, Blennerhasset, Menstrie, Mellor, Melrose,
> Plenmellior, and Plenploth, or short-A as in Caraverick, Cardurnock,
> Cardew, Cardunneth Pike, Carleton, Carnetly, Carrick, Carrock Fell,
> Carwinley, Castel Carrock, and Mam Tor.
>
>
>
>
>
> AI
>
> The Welsh diphthong AI becomes either short A in Cumbric, as in Pennigant,
> or Short-E as in Penyghent.
>
>
>
> AW
>
> The Welsh diphthong AW becomes the short-diphthong OU in the place-name
> Lanercost.
>
>
>
> EI
>
> The Welsh diphthong EI becomes AI in the Cumbric place-name Lanrekaythrin,
> but as short-E in the medieval spelling of the Cumbric place-name Carnetly
> (Carn Thelaue).
>
>
>
> EU
>
> The Welsh diphthong EU appears as AW and OW in medieval spellings of the
> Cumbric place-name Carwinley (Carwyndelawae, Karwendelowe).
>
>
>
> EW
>
> The Welsh diphthong EW appears as long-U and the diphthong short-OU in the
> medieval spellings of Niddrie (Nodref, Nudref).
>
>
>
> IW
>
> The Welsh diphthong IW remains as IW in the place-name Cumrew. The Welsh
> diphthongs EO, IO, and Yw appear as EW in cognate Cornish words, and so
> presumable would appear as IW in Cumbric.
>
>
>
> OE
>
> The Welsh diphthong OE becomes short-E in the place-names Culcheth,
> Hesketh, Mellor, Melrose, Plenmellior, and Tulketh, but as long-I in the
> place-names Cheetham and Kieth, and the diphthong EI in Culgaith.
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> OI, OU
>
>
>
> The Welsh diphthongs OI and OU are very rare in Welsh and no Cumbric
> equivalents have survived.
>
>
>
> WA
>
> The Welsh diphthong WA remains unchanged in the medieval Cumbric
> place-name Wastpatrick Wath.
>
>
>
> WY
>
> The Welsh diphthong WY appears as both WI and the diphthong short-OU in
> the medieval spelling of the river-name Goyt (Got and Gwith).
>
>
>
> UA
>
> The Welsh diphthong UA in buarth appears as short-I in the Cumbric
> place-names Birdoswald and Burtholm.
>
>
>
> UO
>
> The Welsh diphthong UO appears as the triphthong short-IVO in the
> place-names Devoke Water and Cumdivock, cf. W. duog, dark, hence *cwm
> divoc for cwm duog.
>
>
>
> Consonants
>
>
>
> B
>
> Welsh B remains unchanged in Cumbric place-names such as Blencogo. Etc.
>
>
>
> C
>
> Welsh Remains unchanged in Reconstructed Cumbric.
>
>
>
> Ch
>
> Welsh ch appears unaltered in Eccle Fechan, and so remains unchanged.
>
>
>
> D
>
> Initial Welsh D remains unchanged, but elsewhere Welsh D appears as DD or
> voiced-th in Culcheth, Culgaith, Penketh, Tulketh, Lothersdale,
> andWethermellock. This represent a sound change in original Cumbric.
> Initial Welsh D remains unchanged in Reconstructed Cumbric but becomes
> DD elsewhere.
>
>
>
> DD
>
> Welsh DD remains unchanged in Roswrageth, *rhos wragydd, and so remains
> unchanged in reconstructed Cumbric.
>
>
> .
>
>
>
> TH
>
> Welsh TH or unvoiced-th remains unchanged in Lanrekaythin, and so remains
> unchanged in reconstructed Cumbric.
>
>
>
> F
>
> Welsh F remains unchanged in Eccle Fechan, Carfrae, Macefen, and remains
> unchanged in Reconstrcuted Cumbric despite being spelt as V elsewhere.
> There was what seems to be a sound change in Late Cumbric from F into FF
> as in Lindifferon, and Peffer.
>
>
>
> FF
>
> Welsh FF remains unchanged within Reconstrcuted Cumbric.
>
>
>
> G
>
> Welsh G becomes C in Cumbric place-names with a few exceptions, for
> example Penicuik, which in Welsh is pen y cog, has to be compared with
> Blencogo. In Cumbric cuckoo was coc in the singulart but cogow in the
> plural, hence *pen y coc for Penicuik, and *blen y cogow for Blencogo.
>
>
>
> GW
>
> Welsh GW remains unchanged in Din Gouary, the old name for Bamborough. It
> alsoappears as WH in Couwhencatte, and H in hestada, a North British and
> Manx tax recorded in the Doomsday Book, and which corresponded to the
> medieval Welsh tax called gwestfa. Welsh GW remains unchanged in
> Reconstructed Cumbric.
>
>
>
> LL
>
> Welsh LL appears to have disappeared in Cumbric, and appears as L in
> Landican, Lanercost, Linlithgow, Liscard, etc., yet despite this LL is
> spelt LH in Cumbric despite being pronounced as L.
>
>
>
>
>
> Cumbric Grammar
>
>
>
> Contents
>
>
>
> 1. Gender of Nouns
>
> 2. Plural of Nouns
>
> 3. The Definite Article
>
> 4. The Indefinite Article
>
> 5. The Genitive
>
> 6. Mutations
>
> 7. Soft Mutation
>
> 8. Aspirate Mutation
>
> 8. Sharp Mutation
>
> 10. Personal Pronouns
>
> 11. Reflective Pronouns
>
> 12. Conjunctive Pronouns
>
> 13. Emphatic Pronouns
>
> 14 Possessive Pronouns
>
> 15. Pronoun Objects
>
> 16. Demonstrative Pronouns
>
> 17. Demonstrative Adjectives
>
> 18. Demonstrative Adjectives without a Qualifying Noun
>
> 19 The Adverbial Particle
>
> 20. Relative Pronouns
>
> 22. Inflected Prepositional Pronouns
>
> 23. The Syntax of Adjectives
>
> 24. The Syntax of Pronouns
>
> 25. The Equative
>
> 26. The Comparative
>
> 27. The Superlative
>
> 28. Adjectives of Comparison and Superlativity
>
> 29. Declension of Adjectives
>
> 30. Adjectival Suffixes
>
> 31. Abstract Nouns
>
> 32. Adjectival Nouns
>
> 33. Numerals
>
> 34. Ordinal Numbers
>
> 35. The Syntax of the Cumbric Verb
>
> 36. The Present-Future Tense
>
> 37. The Past Continuous
>
> 38. The Preterite Tense
>
> 39. The Pluperfect Tense
>
> 40. The Subjunctive Tense
>
> 41. The Imperative
>
> 42. The Passive Tense
>
> 43. The Present Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 44. The Present Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 45. The Verb To Be With Reference to Time and Place
>
> 46. The Verb To Be After the Interrogative Who
>
> 47. The Verb To Be Used as an Auxiliary in the Present Continuous tense
>
> 48. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 49. The Verb To Be as an Auxiliary in the Imperfect Tense
>
> 50. The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 51. The Past Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 52. The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 53. The Future Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 54. The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 55. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Be
>
> 56. Other Pluperfect Tenses
>
> 57. The Conditional Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 58. The Interrogative
>
> 59. The Negative Particle
>
> 60. The Negative Relative Pronoun
>
> 61. The Affirmative and Negative responses
>
> 62. Irregular Verbs
>
> 63. The Infinitive of the Verb To Go
>
> 64. The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Go
>
> 65. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Go
>
> 66. The Perfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
>
> 67. The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Go
>
> 68. The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
>
> 69. The Verb To Do
>
> 70. The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Do
>
> 71. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Do
>
> 72. The Verb To Come
>
> 73. The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Come
>
> 74. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Come
>
> 75. Other Irregular Verbs Declined Like the Verb To Be
>
> 76. Verbs That Are Irregular in the Third Person Singular
>
> 77. Prepositional Idioms
>
> 78. The Gerund of the Verb
>
> 79. Reported Speech
>
> 80. Adverbial Clauses
>
> 81. The Verb To Have
>
> 82. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Have
>
> 83. The Perfect Tense of the Verb To Have
>
> 84. The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Have
>
> 85. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Have
>
> 86. Requests and the Verb To Have
>
> 87. Prefixes
>
> 88. Suffixes
>
> 89. Vowel Sandhi
>
>
>
>
>
> Cumbric Grammar
>
>
>
> 1. The Gender of Nouns
>
> Nouns and adjectives in modern P-Celtic languages are not declined. All
> that remains of the original Prythonic declensions is gender. There were
> originally three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. Nouns belonging
> to the neuter gender passed into either the masculine or feminine genders
> according to the similarity of neuter genders. In consequence a word may
> be feminine in Cornish and masculine in Welsh. The general rule in
> Reconstructed Cumbric is to follow Welsh usage.
>
>
>
> 2. The Plurals of Nouns
>
> Cumbric plurals are formed in three ways.
>
> i. By the addition of plural suffixes. Two Cumbric plural suffixes have
> survived. These are -ow as in Blencogo, which corresponds to Welsh -au,
> and ydd as in Werneth and Warren Burn (Warnet c.1157), which corresponds
> to Welsh -ydd.
>
> ii. By vowel mutation. An example of a plural formed by vowel mutation
> exists in the place-name Tranent, earlier Trev er Nent, meaning the Villa
> of the Narrow Valleys, the Cumbric of which is *tref yr neint.
>
> iii. By the existence of aggregate plurals from which singulars are
> formed by the addition of diminutive suffixes. A good example of
> this is Ketton in Rutland, which means a tree. This in Cumbric is caithen,
> meaning a tree,from caith meaning a wood.
>
> N.B., Some Welsh plurals are formed by vowel mutation and the addition of
> plural suffixes. A good example of this is neintydd, the plural of nant,
> which means a stream. It can be seen from the example of Trev er Nent that
> the additional of plural suffixes after vowel mutations was dispensed with
> in Cumbric.
>
>
>
> 3. The Definite Article
>
> There are three Cumbric definite articles.
>
> i. The definite article y as in Blencogo (Blen e Cogou c.1256), the
> Cumbric of which is *blain y cogow.
>
> ii. The definite article yr as in Tranent (earlier Trev er Nent), the
> Cumbric of which is *tref yr neint, and Terregles (earler Trev er Egles),
> the Cumbric of which is *tref yr egles.
>
> iii. The definite article yn as in Liscard (Lhis en Cark c.1256), the
> Cumbric of which is *lys yn cark, and Tallentire, the Cumbric of which is
> *tal yn tir.
>
> Although no grammatical rules governing the definite article can be found
> it is to be presumed that grammatical rules would have been invented if
> Old Cumbric had become a written language. The present grammatical rules
> therefore apply.
>
>
>
> Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> y before consonants
> an in
> ar before consonants
> y before consonants
>
> yr before vowels
> all cases
> an before vowels
> yr before vowels and H
>
> and H
>
> an before T,D H
> yn before T,D
>
>
>
> al before L
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> 4. The Indefinite Article
>
> No indefinite article exists in Welsh, but Breton has three indefinite
> articles, UR, UN, and UL, which are governed by the same rule that governs
> the definite article. Cornish has a definite article that is occasionally
> used to emphasise the noun. Cumbric follows Cornish because of the
> Northcountry indefinite articles yan and yin, from Cumbric un.
>
>
>
> 5. The Genitive
>
> i. Adjectival genitives are formed in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
> Cumbric by placing two indefinite nouns together, thus the Cumbric
> place-name Blencarn means (The) Cairn's Summit. Whole genitive sentences
> can be formed, such as the Welsh sentence: Sail ty mab brenin Lloegr,
> meaning, 'The foundation of the house of the son of the king of England,'
> the Cumbric of which is *Sail ty map brenin Lhaigr.
>
> ii. The definite article can be used in place of the English 'of ' to
> form a genitive by being placed between two or more nouns, such as the
> Welsh sentence: Y sail y ty y mab y brenin y Lloegr, hence the Cumbric
> place-name Blencogo from *blain y cogow.
>
>
>
> 6. Mutations
>
> Under certain circumstances the first consonants of Celtic words can
> change. This is called mutation. There is some evidence that Cumbric, in
> common with Cornish and Breton, possessed sharp mutation, which is absent
> in Welsh
>
>
>
> Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> Soft Mutation
>
>
>
>
>
>
> C - G
> C, K - G
> K - G, C'h
> C - G (Penyghent)
>
>
>
> T - D
> T - D
> T - D
> T- D (Landican)
>
>
>
> P - B
> P -B
> P - B
> P - B (Larbet)
>
>
>
> G -silent
> G - silent
> G - C'h
>
>
> G - silent (Prenlas)
>
>
>
> Gw - W
> Gw - W
> Gw - W
> Gw - W (Carwin)
>
>
>
> B - F
> B - V
> B - V
> B - F (Carfrae)
>
>
>
> D- DD
> D - DH
> D - Z
> D - DD
>
>
>
> M - F
> M - V
> M - V
> M - F (Ruthven)
>
>
>
> Aspirate Mutation
>
>
>
>
>
>
> C - CH
> C, K - H, Wh
> K - C'h
> C - CH (Penhurrock)
>
>
>
> T - TH
> T- TH
> T - Z
> T - TH (Carnetly)
>
>
>
> P - PH
> P - F
> P - F
> P - F (Dalfibble)
>
>
>
> .
>
> Sharp Mutation
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> B - P
> B - P
> B - P (Plenmellior)
>
>
> D - T
> D - T
> D - T
>
>
>
>
> G - C,K
> G - K
>
>
> G - C
>
>
>
>
> GW - QU
> GW - KW
>
>
> GW - QU (Cumquencath)
>
>
>
>
> 7. Soft Mutation in Cumbric
>
>
>
> C - G
> GW - W
>
>
> T - D
> B - F
>
>
> P - B
> D - DD
>
>
> G - silent
> M - F
>
>
>
>
>
> In Welsh there are twenty-one grammatical rules governing soft mutation.
> It is obvious from place-name evidence that Cumbric deteriorate both in
> vocabulary and grammar, so the general method is to accept a Welsh
> lenition if at least one example can be found in a Cumbric place-name, and
> to accept a Welsh lenition in the absence of a Cumbric place-name if at
> least in one other example of the same lenition can be found in another
> P-Celtic language. Some lenitions that appear only in Welsh can be
> accepted.
>
>
>
> Rule 1
>
> Feminine singular nouns undergo soft mutation after the definite article.
>
> Example
>
> Penyghent and Pennigant
>
>
>
> Rule 2
>
> Both masculine and feminine nouns adopt soft mutation after adjectives
> such as hen (old) and cul (narrow).
>
> Example
>
> Culgaith
>
>
>
> Rule 3
>
> Nouns adopt soft mutation after the prepositions am (at, about), ar
> (upon), at (towards), dros (over), drwy (through), dan (under), i (to),
> wrth (with, by), o (of), hyd (to, till), heb (without), gan (with).
>
>
>
> Example
>
> Yan-ar-bumpit, Shepherd's notation for sixteen.
>
>
>
> Rule 4.
>
> Nouns adopt lenition after the possessive pronouns thy and his in Welsh,
> Cornish, Breton, and therefore in Cumbric also. (Welsh dy and ei, Cornish
> dha and y, Breton da and e: Welsh 'th after a vowel, Cornish 'th after a
> vowel, Breton 'az after a vowel.)
>
>
>
> Rule 5
>
> Nouns adopt lenition after two in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and Cumbric.
>
>
>
> Example
>
> Dotheck, Shepherd's notation for nineteen.
>
>
>
> Rule 6
>
> In Welsh and Cornish, and therefore in Cumbric also, two adopts lenition
> after the definite article.
>
>
>
> Rule 7
>
> In Welsh and Breton, and therefore in Cumbric also, feminine nouns adopt
> lenition after the numeral one. In Cornish masculine nouns adopt lenition
> after one and the indefinite article.
>
>
>
> Rule 8
>
> Nouns in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and therefore in Cumbric also, adopt
> lenition after the adjective what.
>
>
>
> Rule 9
>
> Two nouns or an adjective and a noun can be joined together in Cumbric to
> form a single word.
>
> Example
>
> Ogilvie (*ochilfa or highplace), Mellor (*mailvre or baldhill).
>
>
>
> Rule 10
>
> Nouns and verbs adopt lenition after most prefixes in Welsh, Cornish,
> Breton, and therefore in Cumbric also.
>
> Example
>
> Larbet, earlier lethberth (*leddberth semi-bush).
>
>
>
> Rule 11
>
> Adjectives in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and therefore in Cumbric also,
> adopt lenition after feminine singular nouns.
>
>
>
> Example
>
> Ecclefechan (*ecles fechan, littlechurch), Drumburgh, earlier Dromboc
> (*drum bach, small ridge)
>
>
>
> Rule 12
>
> In medieval Welsh verbs after the pronoun e meaning it adopt lenition.
> This same rule applies in Cumbric despite the fact that this rule does not
> occur in any other P-Celtic language. This rule has been adopted from
> Welsh for grammatical reasons.
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> Rule 13
>
>
>
> Welsh and Cornish verbs, therefore also verbs Cumbric, adopt lenition
> after the interrogative particle A.
>
>
>
> Rule 14
>
> Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore Cumbric verbs, adopt lenition after
> the relative pronouns a and na.
>
>
>
> Rule 15
>
> Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore in Cumbric also, adopt lenition
> after the conjunction when.
>
>
>
> Rule 16
>
> Verbs in Cornish and Breton adopt lenition after the negative particle,
> but in Welsh all verbs adopt lenition except verbs that begin with C, P,
> T. Cumbric follows Welsh usage on the presumption that Cumbric is closer
> to Welsh that to Cornish and Breton.
>
>
>
> Rule 17
>
> Welsh verbs adopt lenition after the infinite particle yn. It is presumed
> that because of the ease with which the Cumbric poems of Taliesin and
> Aneirin were translated into Welsh that the same rule applies in Cumbric.
>
>
>
> 8. Aspirate Mutation in Cumbric.
>
>
>
> C
> CH
>
> P
> F
>
> T
> TH
>
>
>
>
> Rule 1
>
> In Cornish and Breton words following the first singular possessive
> pronouns adopt aspirate mutation, but in Welsh they adopt nasal mutation.
> No example of nasal mutation survives in Cumbric but examples of aspirate
> foundation exist in Cumbric place-names, therefore Reconstructed Cumbric
> follows Cornish and Breton usage of aspirate mutation
>
> .
>
>
>
> Rule 2
>
> Words following the feminine third possessive pronoun singular adopt
> aspirate mutation in Welsh and Cornish, and therefore in Cumbric also,
> adopt aspirate mutation.
>
>
>
> Rule 3
>
> Welsh and Cornish nouns and therefore Cumbric nouns also, adopt aspirate
> mutation after the comparative particle NA, which is used with adjectives
> of comparison.
>
>
>
> Rule 4
>
> Welsh and Cornish words and therefore Cumbric words also, following three
> adopt aspirate mutation. Welsh words following six, adopt aspirate
> mutation but there is no need to adopt this usage in Cumbric.
>
>
>
>
>
> 9. Sharp Mutation
>
>
>
> B
> P
>
> D
> T
>
> G
> C
>
> GW
> CW
>
>
>
>
>
> Rule 1
>
> Cornish and Breton words that follow if (mar, ma), and Cumbric words also,
> adopt sharp mutation. Welsh words following if (mar) adopt lenition.
>
>
>
> 10. Personal Pronouns
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> I
> fi, i
> my, fy
> me
> mi, i
>
> thou, thee
> ti
> ti, sy
> te
> ti
>
> he, him
> ef
> ef
> en
> ef
>
> she, her
>
> it
> hi
>
> e, o
> hy, y
> hi
> hi
>
> we, us
> ni
> ny
> ni
> ni
>
> you, ye
> chwi
> why
> chewy
> chwi
>
> they, them
>
>
> hwy
>
> nhw
> y
> int
> hwi
>
>
>
>
> Welsh (and therefore Cumbric) possesses special reflective, conjunctive,
> and emphatic pronouns.
>
>
>
> 11. Reflexive Pronouns
>
> English
> Welsh and Cumbric
> English
> Welsh and Cumbric
>
> I myself
> myfy
> we ourselves
> nyni
>
> thou thyself
> tydy
> you yourself
> chychwi
>
> he himself
> efe
> they themselves
> hwyntwy
>
> she herself
> hyhi
>
> hwynt
>
> it itself
> fo
>
> nwythaw
>
>
>
>
> 12. Conjunctive Pronouns He himself
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh and Cumbric
> English
> Welsh and Cumbric
>
> I also
> minnau
> we also
> ninnau
>
> thou also
> tithau
> you also
> chwithau
>
> he also
> yntau
> they also
> hwyntau
>
> she also
> hithau
>
> hwythau
>
> it also
> o
>
> nhwy
>
>
>
>
> 13. Emphatic Pronouns
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh and Cumbric
> English
> Welsh and Cumbric
>
> I myself also
> myfinnau
> we ourselves also
> nyninnau
>
> thou thyself also
> tydithau
> you yourselves also
> chychwithau
>
> he himself also
> fe
> they themselves also
> hwythau
>
> she herself also
> hyhithau
>
> hwyntwy
>
> it itself also
> efo
>
> ydd
>
>
>
>
>
>
> 14. Possessive Pronouns
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> my
> fy,'m
> ow(m)
> ma
> my, 'm
>
> thy, thine
> dy, 'th
> dha, 'th
> da, 'az
> dy, 'th
>
> his
> ei, 'i, 'w
> y
> e
> ai, 'i, 'w
>
> her, hers
> ei, 'i, 'w
> y
> e
> ai, 'i, 'w
>
> our, ours
> ein, 'n
> agan
> ma
> ain, 'n
>
> your, yours
> eich, 'ch
> agas
> ho
> aich. 'ch
>
> their, theirs
> eu, 'u, 'w
> aga
> e
> ai, 'w
>
>
>
>
> As in Welsh the Cumbric possessive pronouns become 'm, 'th, 'i, 'n, 'ch,
> and 'u after a (and), and o (from), and ai become 'w after i (to). My and
> dy are followed by soft mutation in Cumbric
>
>
>
> 15. Pronoun Objects
>
>
>
> When the pronoun is the object of the verb particles are employed.
>
>
>
> hi a-walth ef
> she sees him
>
> ef e-gwalth hi
> him, sees she
>
> ef a-walth hi
> he sees her
>
> hi e-gwalth ef
> her, sees he
>
>
>
>
> 16. Demonstrative Pronouns
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> this (m)
> hwn
> hemma
> hemman
> hon
>
> this (f)
> hon
> hemma
> homan
> hon
>
> these
> hyn
>
>
> hyn
>
> that (m)
> hwnnw
> henna
> hennezh
> honno
>
> that (f)
> honno
> henna
> hennezh
> honno
>
> those
> hynny
>
>
> hynny
>
>
>
>
> 17. Demonstrative Adjectives
>
>
>
> The definite article precedes the noun. In Cornish and Breton
> demonstrative adverb follows the noun.
>
> English
> Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> this man
> y dyn hwn
> an den-ma
> al den-man
> yn dyn hon
>
> this woman
> yr wraig hon
> an wrek-ma
> an wreg-man
> yr wraic hon
>
> these people
> y dynion hyn
> an tus-ma
> an tud-man
> yn tudd hon
>
> that man
> y dyn hwnnw
> an den-na
> al den-se
> yn dyn honno
>
> that woman
> yr wraig honno
> an wrek-na
> an wreg-se
> yr wraic honno
>
> those people
> y dynion hynny
> an tus-na
> an tud-se
> yn tudd hon
>
>
>
>
> 18. Demonstrative Adjectives without a Qualifying Noun
>
> Demonstrative adjectives without a qualifying noun are made in the same
> way by using an indefinite article.
>
> English
> Welsh
> Cornish
> Cumbric
>
> these (m)
> y rhai hwn
> an re-ma
> y ra-ma
>
> these (f)
> y rhai yma
> an re-ma
> y ra-ma
>
> those (m)
> y rhai hyna
> an re-na
> y ra-na
>
> those (f)
> y rhai yna
> an re-na
> y ra-na
>
>
>
>
> N.B. In Cornish and Cumbric the levelling of the diphthong AI to E in the
> case of Cornish and A in the case of Cumbric occasions the disappearance
> of the preceding consonant. A levelling of y rhai hwn in Welsh to y ra-ma
> in Cumbric follows the same linguistic rule that is responsible for the
> Cornish y re-ma.
>
>
>
> 19. The Demonstrative Adverb
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> here
> yma
> omma
> eman
> yma
>
> there
> yna
> ena
> eno (azo)
> yna
>
>
>
>
> The demonstrative adverb can also serve to answer to the English phrases,
> "here is a.here are" and "there is a.there are." If the definite article
> is used Cumbric, like Medieval Welsh and Cornish, uses the vocative, "Lo
> the man" as in Medieval Welsh, "Wel y dyn," and in Cornish "Ot an den."
> Because of the mutation of short E to short A in Cumbric the Cumbric
> equivalent is, "Wal y dyn."
>
>
>
> 20. The Adverbial Particle
>
>
>
> In Welsh, Cornish, and Cumbric the adverbial particle yn is placed before
> adjectives in order to turn them into adverbs, thus in Welsh drwg (bad)
> and da (good) become yn ddrwg and yn dda, Cornish drok and da become
> yn-trok and yn-ta, and so in Cumbric drwc and da become yn ddrwc and yn
> dda.
>
>
>
> 21. Relative Pronouns
>
>
>
> Welsh, Cornish, and Cumbric translations into Welsh possess relative
> pronouns that correspond to the English relative "that" and "which". In
> positive sentences this relative pronoun is A before vowels and
> consonants. In negative sentences is NA before consonants but NAD in Welsh
> and NANS in Cornish before vowels. The corresponding Cumbric is NADD.
>
> When a preposition or the genitive "whose" is used the relative pronoun
> Y is substituted for A in Welsh and the preposition is placed at the end
> of the sentence, thus on Welsh, "Dyma'r llyfr y darllenais y stori ynddo"
> (Here is the book which I read the story in it). Welsh "dyma" is a variant
> of "yma," which means here or here is, and which corresponds to the Breton
> "eman". this rule appears in Taliesin, for example;"Trist yd gwyn pob
> colledig" or ""Sadly does every condemned one complain"; therefore it
> appears in Cumbric, hence, "Yma'r lyfr y darlenais y saga ynddo."
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh
> Cumbric
>
> the one
> yr hwn
> yr hon
>
> that which
> y neb
> y nep
>
> such ones
> r rhai
> y rai
>
> either
> y naill
> y nail
>
> who
> pwy
> pwy
>
> what
> pa
> pa
>
> which one
> pa un
> pa un
>
> which ones
> pa rhai
> pa rai
>
> how many
> pa sol
> pa sol
>
> what place, where
>
> why
> pa le, ple
>
> py
> pa le, p'le
>
> pa am. p'am
>
> how are you
> pa sut sydd
> pa sut sydd, pa su'dd
>
>
>
>
> In Welsh the relative pronoun pwy is followed by a special form of the
> verb to be, which is sydd, or sy for short. It is not necessary to use the
> phrase "pwy sydd" since "sydd" alone implies the interrogative pronoun
> "pwy". Note that in Welsh relative pronouns occasion the lenition of G, B,
> D and M, and the aspirate mutation of C, P. T. No example of aspirate
> lenition has been discovered in Cumbric place-names with the result that
> only the lenition of G, B, and D occurs after relative pronouns.
>
>
>
> 22. Inflected Prepositional Pronouns
>
>
>
> In Welsh the following prepositions are inflected by adopting the personal
> pronoun, am (about), ar (upon), at ( towards), er (for), heb (without),
> hyd (until), i (to), idd (into), han (from), can (with), o (from), odd
> (from), tan (under), tros (over), trwy (through), oddiar (from upon),
> odditan (from beneath), rhag (before), rhwng (among), wrth (by), and yn
> (in). Cumbric follows Old Welsh, Cornish, and Breton usage. The Old Welsh
> inflection found in the third person plural appears in Taliesin, "Deuddeg
> meib Israel a thair mam iddu onaddu y doeth rhad a geisidydd mad." (The
> twelve sons of Israel and three mothers to thee from them there came a
> blessing."
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh
> Old Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> in me
> ynddof
> ynof
> ynnof
> ennon
> ynof
>
> in thee
> ynddot
> ynot
> ynnes
> ennout
> ynoth
>
> in him
> ynddo
> yno
> ynno
> ennan
> yno
>
> in her
> ynddi
> yni
> ynny
> enni
> yni
>
> in us
> ynddem
> ynem
> ynnon
> ennomp
> ynem
>
> in you
> ynddoch
> ynoch
> ynnough
> enno'ch
> ynoch
>
> in them
> ynddynt
> ynu
> ynna
> enno
> ynu
>
>
>
>
> The Old Welsh inflection
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh
> Old Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> to me
> imi
> imi
> dhem (mo)
> din
> imi
>
> to thee
> iti
> iti
> dhes (so)
> dit
> iti
>
> to him
> iddo
> iddo
> dhodhno
> dezhan
> iddo
>
> to her
> iddi
> iddi
> dhedhy
> dezhi
> iddi
>
> to us
> ini
> ini
> dhen
> deomp
> ini
>
> to you
> ichwi
> ichwi
> dheugh
> deoc'h
> ichwi
>
> to them
> iddynt
> iddynt
> dhedha
> dezho
> iddynt
>
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh
> Old Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> upon me
> arnaf
> arnaf
> warnaf
> warnon
> arnaf
>
> upon thee
> arnat
> arnat
> warned
> warnout
> arnath
>
> upon him
> arno
> arno
> warnodhe
> warnan
> arno
>
> upon her
> arni
> arni
> warnedhy
> warni
> arni
>
> upon us
> arnom
> arnom
> warnan
> warnomp
> arnom
>
> upon you
> arnoch
> arnoch
> warnough
> warnoc'h
> arnoch
>
> upon them
> arnynt
> arnu
> warnedha
> warno
> arnu
>
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh
> Old Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> with me
> gennyf
> gennyf
> genen
> ganin
> gennyf
>
> with thee
> gennyt
> gennyt
> genes
> ganit
> gennyt
>
> with him
> ganddo
> ganddo
> ganso
> gantan
> ganddo
>
> with her
> ganddi
> ganddi
> gansy
> ganti
> ganddi
>
> with us
> gennym
> gennym
> genen
> ganeomp
> gennym
>
> with you
> gennych
> gennych
> genough
> ganeoc'h
> gennych
>
> with them
> ganddynt
> ganddu
> gansa
> ganto
> gandu
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> Am, such as in amdanaf for about me, adopts the preposition tan when
> inflected. Some prepositions, such as uch or above are not inflected at
> all.
>
>
>
> English
> Welsh
> Old Welsh
> Cornish
> Breton
> Cumbric
>
> above me
> uch i
> uch i
>
>
> uch i
>
> above thee
> uch ti
> uch ti
>
>
> uch ti
>
> above him
> uch ef
> uch ef
>
>
> uch ef
>
> above her
> uch hi
> uch hi
>
>
> uch hi
>
> above us
> uch ni
> uch ni
>
>
> uch ni
>
> above you
>
> above them
> uch chwy
>
> uch hwy
> uch chwy
>
> uch hwy
>
>
> uch chwy
>
> uch hwy
>
>
>
>
>
>
> 23. The Syntax of Adjectives
>
>
>
> In Prythonic adjectives preceded the noun, as in some early Cumbric
> place-names, but adjectives later began to follow the noun in all P-Celtic
> languages. In Welsh there are a few exceptions, such as hen (old) and
> uchel (high). With regard to uchel, this is confirmed in Cumbric by the
> Cumbric place-name Ochilvie.
>
>
>
> 24. The Syntax of Pronouns
>
>
>
> Pronouns precede the noun if no other word intervenes, and if they are
> accompanied by an adjective or article. A pronoun must agree with the noun
> for which it stands in both gender and number, thus in Welsh, "Ef dyn
> cryf" (He [is] a strong man) and, "Hi y fenyw" (She [is] a strong female).
> Modern Welsh employs verbal auxiliaries such as, "Y mae ef dyn yn-gryf,"
> etc. Cumbric follows medieval Welsh usage.
>
>
>
> 25. The Equative
>
>
>
> A simple statement such as, "The apple is red" appears in Cornish, Breton,
> and Medieval Welsh as follows.
>
> Breton, "Ruz eo al aval."
>
> Cornish. "Yr afal yn rhudd."
>
> Medieval Welsh, "Yr afal yw rhudd."
>
>
>
> To make an equative statement such as "The apple is as red as fire,"
> Modern Welsh employs certain adverbs and adds a suffix to the adjective;
> hence, "Y mae'r afal cyn goched a than," but the Medieval Welsh is, "Yr
> afal yw yn rhudded a than." Cumbric follows Medieval Welsh usage. In order
> to make a simple statement such as, "The apple is as red," Welsh employs a
> different adverb, "Yr afal yw can goched." Cumbric, "Yr afal yw can
> rhudded."
>
>
>
> 26. The Comparative
>
> A comparative statement such as, "The apple is redder than fire," appears
> in Modern Welsh as, "Yr afal yw yn gochad na than," the Medieval Welsh of
> which is, "Yr afal yw rhuddach na than." The Breton equival is, "An aval
> eo ruzoc'h na tan." Cumbric follows Medieval Welsh usage.
>
>
>
> 27. The Superlative
>
> 28. Adjectives of Comparison and Superlativity
>
> 29. Declension of Adjectives
>
> 30. Adjectival Suffixes
>
> 31. Abstract Nouns
>
> 32. Adjectival Nouns
>
> 33. Numerals
>
> 34. Ordinal Numbers
>
> 35. The Syntax of the Cumbric Verb
>
> 36. The Present-Future Tense
>
> 37. The Past Continuous
>
> 38. The Preterite Tense
>
> 39. The Pluperfect Tense
>
> 40. The Subjunctive Tense
>
> 41. The Imperative
>
> 42. The Passive Tense
>
> 43. The Present Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 44. The Present Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 45. The Verb To Be With Reference to Time and Place
>
> 46. The Verb To Be After the Interrogative Who
>
> 47. The Verb To Be Used as an Auxiliary in the Present Continuous tense
>
> 48. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 49. The Verb To Be as an Auxiliary in the Imperfect Tense
>
> 50. The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 51. The Past Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 52. The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 53. The Future Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 54. The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 55. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Be
>
> 56. Other Pluperfect Tenses
>
> 57. The Conditional Tense of the Verb To Be
>
> 58. The Interrogative
>
> 59. The Negative Particle
>
> 60. The Negative Relative Pronoun
>
> 61. The Affirmative and Negative responses
>
> 62. Irregular Verbs
>
> 63. The Infinitive of the Verb To Go
>
> 64. The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Go
>
> 65. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Go
>
> 66. The Perfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
>
> 67. The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Go
>
> 68. The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
>
> 69. The Verb To Do
>
> 70. The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Do
>
> 71. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Do
>
> 72. The Verb To Come
>
> 73. The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Come
>
> 74. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Come
>
>75. Other Irregular Verbs Declined Like the Verb To Be
>
> 76. Verbs That Are Irregular in the Third Person Singular
>
> 77. Prepositional Idioms
>
> 78. The Gerund of the Verb
>
> 79. Reported Speech
>
> 80. Adverbial Clauses
>
> 81. The Verb To Have
>
> 82. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Have
>
> 83. The Perfect Tense of the Verb To Have
>
> 84. The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Have
>
> 85. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Have
>
> 86. Requests and the Verb To Have
>
> 87. Prefixes
>
> 88. Suffixes
>
> 89. Vowel Sandhi
>
>
>
>
>
>
>


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