Mantik bilmeyenin............

From: "M. Murat Albayrakoglu" <murata@xxxxxxxxxxxxx>
Newsgroups: soc.culture.turkish
Date: Sun, 28 Apr 1996 18:44:52 -0500

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http://www.mcrel.org/standards-benchmarks/standardslib/think.html

"Thinking and Reasoning Standards [Kindergarden'dan 12. Sinifa kadar]

1.Understands and applies the basic principles of presenting an
argument
2.Understands and applies basic principles of logic and reasoning
3.Effectively uses mental processes that are based on identifying
similarities and differences (compares, contrasts,
classifies)
4.Understands and applies basic principles of hypothesis testing
and
scientific inquiry
5.Applies basic trouble-shooting and problem-solving techniques
6.Applies decision-making techniques"

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http://www.mcrel.org/standards-benchmarks/standards/think/S1.html

Thinking and Reasoning

Standard: 1 Understands and applies the basic principles of presenting
an
argument

[...]

------------------------------------------------------------------

Level I: Primary

Understands that people are more likely to believe a person's ideas if
that person can give good reasons for them

Provides coherent (though not necessarily valid or convincing) answers
when
asked why one believes something to be true or how one knows something

Asks "how do you know" in appropriate situations

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Level II: Upper Elementary

Uses facts from books, articles, and databases to support an argument

Identifies basic informal fallacies, including appeals to authority,
the use
of statements such as "everybody knows," and vague references such as
"leading doctors say"

Understands that reasoning can be distorted by strong feelings

Analyzes arguments to determine if they are supported by facts from
books,
articles, and databases

Raises questions about arguments that are based on the assertion that
"everybody knows" or "I just know"

Seeks reasons for believing things other than the assertion that
"everybody
agrees"

Recognizes when a comparison is not fair because important
characteristics
are not the same

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Level III: Middle School/Jr. High

Evaluates arguments that are based on quantitative data and
mathematical
concepts

Questions claims that use vague references such as "leading experts
say..."
or are based on the statements of people speaking outside of their
expertise
(e.g., celebrities)

Questions conclusions based on very small samples of data, biased
samples, or
samples for which there is no central sample

Makes basic distinctions between information that is based on fact and
information that is based on opinion

Identifies and questions false analogies

Identifies and questions arguments in which all members of a group are
implied to possess nearly identical characteristics that are
considered to be
different from those of another group

Compares and contrasts the credibility of differing accounts of the
same event

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Level IV: High School

Understands that when people try to prove a point, they may at times
select
only the information that supports it and ignore the information that
contradicts it

Identifies techniques used to slant information in subtle ways

Identifies the logic of arguments that are based on quantitative
data

Identifies or seeks out the critical assumptions behind a line of
reasoning
and uses that to judge the validity of an argument

Understands that to be convincing, an argument must have both true
statements
and valid connections among them

Uses tables, charts, and graphs in constructing arguments

Analyzes the effectiveness of arguments based on the extent to which
they
rely on facts versus opinions


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http://www.mcrel.org/standards-benchmarks/standards/think/S2.html

Thinking and Reasoning

Standard: 2 Understands and applies basic principles of logic and
reasoning

[...]

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Level III: Middle School/Jr. High

Uses formal deductive connectors ("if...then," "not," "and," "or") in
the
construction of deductive arguments

Understands that some aspects of reasoning have very rigid rules but
other
aspects do not

Understands that when people have rules that always hold for a given
situation and good information about the situation, then logic can
help them
figure out what is true about the situation

Understands that reasoning by similarities can suggest ideas but
cannot be
used to prove things

Understands that people are using incorrect logic when they make a
statement
such as "if x is true, then y is true; but x isn't true, therefore y
isn't
true"

Understands that a single example can never prove that something is
true, but
a single example can prove that something is not true

Understands that some people invent a general rule to explain how
something
works by summarizing observations

Understands that people overgeneralize by making up rules on the basis
of
only a few observations

Understands that personal values influence the types of conclusions
people
make

Recognizes situations in which a variety of conclusions can be drawn
from the
same information

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Level IV: High School

Understands the differences between the formal and informal uses
(e.g., in
everyday situations) of the logical connectors: "if...then," "not,"
"and,"
"or"

Analyzes the deductive validity of arguments based on implicit or
explicit
assumptions

Understands the difference between formal and informal uses (e.g.,
in everyday situations) of the terms "sufficient"

Understands the formal meaning of the logical quantifiers: "some,"
"none,"
and "all"

Understands that formal logic is mostly about connections between
statements
and that these connections can be considered without attention to
whether the
statements themselves are true or not

Understands that people sometimes reach false conclusions either by
applying
faulty logic to true statements or by applying valid logic to false
statements

Understands that a reason may be sufficient to get a result but may
not be
the only way to get the result (i.e., may not be necessary), or a
reason may
be necessary to obtain a result but not sufficient (i.e., other things
are
also required; some reasons may be both necessary and sufficient)

Understands that logic can be used to test how well any general rule
works

Understands that proving a general rule to be false can be done by
finding
just one exception; this is much easier than proving a general rule to
be
true for all possible cases

Understands that logic may be of limited help in finding solutions to
problems if the general rules upon which conclusions are based do not
always
hold true; most often, we have to deal with probabilities rather than
certainties

Understands that once a person believes a general rule, he or she may
be more
likely to notice things that agree with that rule and not notice
things that
do not; to avoid this "confirmatory bias," scientific studies
sometimes use
observers who do not know what the results are supposed to be

Understands that very complex logical arguments can be formulated from
a
number of simpler logical arguments

Identifies counter examples to conclusions that have been developed


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http://www.mcrel.org/standards-benchmarks/standards/think/S3.html

Thinking and Reasoning

Standard: 3 Effectively uses mental processes that are based on
identifying similarities and differences (compares,
contrasts, classifies)
[...]

--------------------------------------------------------------------

Level I: Primary

Classifies objects by size, color, or other significant
characteristics

Identifies the similarities and differences between persons, places,
things,
and events using concrete criteria

Describes and compares things in terms of number, shape, texture,
size,
weight, color, and motion

Recognizes simple patterns in the surrounding events and objects

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Level II: Upper Elementary

Understands that one way to make sense of something is to think how it
is
like something more familiar

Recognizes when comparisons might not be fair because some
characteristics
are not the same

Compares people in terms of important ethnic, religious, and cultural
characteristics

Makes comparisons between countries in terms of relatively concrete
characteristics (e.g., size, population, products)

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Level III: Middle School/Jr. High

Compares consumer products on the basis of features, performance,
durability,
and cost, and considers personal tradeoffs

Understands that an analogy not only contains some likenesses but also
some
differences

Selects criteria or rules for category membership that are relevant
and
important

Orders information or events based on frequency of occurrence

Orders information based on importance to a given criterion

Articulates abstract relationships between existing categories of
information

Creates a table to compare specific abstract and concrete features of
two
items

Compares different sources of information for the same topic in terms
of
basic similarities and differences

Identifies the abstract relationships that form the basis for
analogies

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Level IV: High School

Uses a comparison table to compare multiple items on multiple abstract
characteristics

Identifies abstract patterns of similarities and differences between
information on the same topic but from different sources

Identifies abstract relationships between seemingly unrelated items

Identifies the qualitative and quantitative traits (other than
frequency and
obvious importance) that can be used to order and classify items


================================================================

http://www.mcrel.org/standards-benchmarks/standards/think/S4.html

Thinking and Reasoning

Standard: 4 Understands and applies basic principles of hypothesis
testing
and scientific inquiry


[...]

--------------------------------------------------------------------

Level I: Primary

Asks "how do you know" in appropriate situations and attempts to
provide
reasonable answers when others ask the same question

Understands that changing one thing sometimes causes changes in
something
else and that changing the same thing in the same way usually has the
same
result

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Level II: Upper Elementary

Keeps a notebook that describes observations made

Attempts to verify the results of experiments done by others

Carefully distinguishes between actual observations and ideas or
conclusions
about what was observed

Makes records of observations regarding time and place to formulate
hypotheses

Keeps systematic records of temperature, precipitation, cloud cover,
and
other weather information to formulate hypotheses

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Level III: Middle School/Jr. High

Understands that there are a variety of ways people can form
hypotheses,
including basing them on many observations, basing them on very few
observations, and constructing them on only one or two observations

Accurately and effectively verifies results of experiments

Understands that there may be more than one valid way to interpret a
set of
findings

Questions findings in which no mention is made of whether the control
group
is very similar to the experimental group

Reformulates a new hypothesis for study after an old hypothesis has
been
eliminated

Makes and validates conjectures about outcomes of specific
alternatives or
events regarding an experiment

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Level IV: High School

Identifies and critiques studies in which data, explanations, or
conclusions
are presented as the only ones worth considering

Tests hypotheses statistically

Presents alternative explanations and conclusions to one's own
experiments

Gathers and analyzes field data using spatial sampling (e.g., place a
transparent grid of squares on maps to count whether two
characteristics such
as corn production and hogs that are hypothesized to be spatially
related
coexist within the grid cells)


===============================================================

http://www.mcrel.org/standards-benchmarks/standards/think/S5.html

Thinking and Reasoning

Standard: 5 Applies basic trouble-shooting and problem-solving
techniques

[...]

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Level I: Primary

No materials specifically designated for this level

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Level II: Upper Elementary

Identifies issues and problems in the school or community that one
might help
solve

Studies problems in the community and how they were solved

Analyzes the problems that have confronted people in the past in terms
of the
major goals and obstacles to those goals

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Level III: Middle School/Jr. High

Identifies alternative courses of action and predicts likely
consequences of each

Selects the most appropriate strategy or alternative for solving a
problem

Examines different alternatives for resolving local problems and
compares the possible consequences of each
alternative

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Level IV: High School

Applies trouble-shooting strategies to complex real-world situations

Understands that trouble-shooting almost anything may require many-
step
branching logic

Trouble-shoots common mechanical and electrical systems, checking for
possible causes of malfunction, and decides on that basis whether to
make a
change or get advice from an expert before proceeding

Engages in problem finding and framing for personal situations and
situations
in the community

Represents a problem accurately in terms of resources, constraints,
and
objectives

Provides summation of the effectiveness of problem-solving techniques

Reframes problems when alternative solutions are exhausted

Examines different options for solving problems of historical
importance and
determines why specific courses of action were taken

Evaluates the feasibility of various solutions to problems;
recommends and
defends a solution


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http://www.mcrel.org/standards-benchmarks/standards/think/S6.html

Thinking and Reasoning

Standard: 6 Applies decision-making techniques

[...]

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Level I: Primary

No materials specifically designated for this level

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Level II: Upper Elementary

Studies decisions that were made in the community in terms of the
alternatives that were considered

Analyzes important decisions made by people in the past in terms of
possible
alternatives that were considered

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Level III: Middle School/Jr. High

Identifies situations in the community and in one's personal life in
which a
decision is required

Secures factual information needed to evaluate alternatives

Identifies the values underlying the alternatives that are considered
and the
criteria that will be used to make a selection among the alternatives

Predicts the consequences of selecting each alternative

Makes decisions based on the data obtained and the criteria identified

When appropriate, takes action to implement the decision

Makes effective decisions about consumer products based on important
criteria, including external features, performance, durability, cost,
and
personal tradeoffs

Analyzes personal decisions in terms of the options that were
considered

Uses a decision-making grid or matrix to make or study decisions
involving a
relatively limited number of alternatives and criteria

Selects appropriate locations for specific service industries within
the
community

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Level IV: High School

Analyzes decisions that were major turning points in history and
describes
how things would have been different if other alternatives had been
selected

Analyzes current or pending decisions that can affect national or
international policy and identifies the consequences of each
alternative

Uses a decision-making grid or matrix to make or study decisions
involving a
relatively large number of alternatives and criteria

Uses a balance *** to evaluate the costs and benefits of various
alternatives within a decision

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